Total Security Management, Inc.

National Labor Relations Board - Board Decisions

Aug 26, 2016

364 NLRB No. 106 (N.L.R.B. 2016)

364 NLRB No. 106
NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the
bound volumes of NLRB decisions. Readers are requested to notify the Ex-
ecutive Secretary, National Labor Relations Board, Washington, D.C.
20570, of any typographical or other formal errors so that corrections can
be included in the bound volumes.
Total Security Management Illinois 1, LLC and In-
ternational Union Security Police Fire Profes-
sionals of America (SPFPA). Case 13–CA–
108215
August 26, 2016
DECISION AND ORDER
BY CHAIRMAN PEARCE AND MEMBERS MISCIMARRA,
HIROZAWA, AND MCFERRAN
The issue in this case is whether the Respondent acted
unlawfully when it discharged three employees without
first giving the Union notice and an opportunity to bar-
gain about the discharges.1 The judge found the dis-
charges unlawful, relying on Alan Ritchey, Inc., 359
NLRB 396 (2012), which held that an employer is obli-
gated to provide notice and an opportunity to bargain
before imposing certain types of discipline, including
discharge, on employees represented by a union but not
yet covered by a collective-bargaining agreement. At the
time of the Decision and Order in Alan Ritchey, however,
the composition of the Board included two persons
whose appointments to the Board had been challenged as
constitutionally infirm. On June, 26, 2014, the United
States Supreme Court issued its decision in NLRB v. Noel
Canning, 134 S.Ct. 2550 (2014), holding that the chal-
lenged appointments to the Board were not valid.
In light of the Supreme Court’s decision in Noel Can-
ning, we reexamine de novo whether an employer has a
statutory obligation to bargain before imposing discre-
tionary discipline on unit employees, when a union has
been certified or lawfully recognized as the employees’
representative but has not yet entered into a collective-
bargaining agreement with the employer. Having con-
sidered the issue, we again hold that, like other terms and
conditions of employment, discretionary discipline is a
mandatory subject of bargaining and that employers may
not unilaterally impose serious discipline, as defined be-
low. Nevertheless, based on the unique nature of disci-
pline and the practical needs of employers, the bargain-
ing obligation we impose is more limited than that appli-
cable to other terms and conditions of employment. We

1 On May 9, 2014, Administrative Law Judge Arthur J. Amchan is-
sued the attached decision. The Respondent filed exceptions and a
supporting brief, the General Counsel filed an answering brief, and the
Respondent filed a reply brief.
The Board has considered the decision and the record in light of the
exceptions and briefs and has decided to affirm the judge’s rulings,
findings, and conclusions only to the extent consistent with this Deci-
sion and Order.
will apply today’s holding prospectively and dismiss the
allegations in this case, but we will provide guidance
regarding the remedies that would be appropriate in later
cases.
Background
The complaint alleges that the Respondent, a provider
of security planning and security services, violated Sec-
tion 8(a)(5) and (1) of the Act by discharging three unit
employees without prior notice to or bargaining with
International Union, Security, Police and Fire Profes-
sionals of America (the Union or SPFPA), which repre-
sents the employees.2 The parties submitted, and the
judge accepted, a stipulated record that establishes that
the relevant facts are undisputed and the issue presented
to us is the legal question whether the Respondent’s
acknowledged failure to bargain with the Union before
discharging the three employees was unlawful.
Analysis
The primary question before us is whether an employ-
er has a duty to bargain before disciplining individual
employees, when the employer does not alter broad,
preexisting standards of conduct but exercises discretion
over whether and how to discipline individuals. The
issue arose in this case, as it typically will, after the em-
ployees voted to be represented by a union, but before
the employer and union had entered into a complete col-
lective-bargaining agreement or other agreement govern-
ing discipline.
The Board has long held, in a variety of other contexts,
that once employees choose to be represented, an em-
ployer may not continue to act unilaterally with respect
to terms and conditions of employment—even where it
has previously done so routinely or at regularly sched-
uled intervals. If the employer has exercised and contin-
ues to exercise discretion in regard to the unilateral
change at issue, e.g., the amount of an annual wage in-
crease, it must first bargain with the union over the dis-
cretionary aspect. See, e.g., Oneita Knitting Mills, 205
NLRB 500 (1973). Other than in Alan Ritchey, supra,
the Board has never clearly and adequately explained
how (and to what extent) this established doctrine applies
to the discipline of individual employees. We now con-
clude that an employer must provide its employees’ bar-
gaining representative notice and the opportunity to bar-
gain before exercising its discretion to impose certain
discipline on individual employees, absent an agreement
with the union providing for a process, such as a griev-
ance-arbitration system, to address such disputes. Never-

2 Other violations that were alleged in the complaint have been sev-
ered and resolved.
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD2
theless, because we apply this rule prospectively only,
we find, contrary to the judge, that the Respondent did
not violate Section 8(a)(5) and (1) when it refused to
bargain with the Union over certain disciplinary actions
here.
A. Facts
The parties stipulated to the following facts:
 The Union was certified as the exclusive rep-
resentative of a bargaining unit that included
security guards Jason Mack, Winston Jen-
nings, and Nequan Smith on August 21, 2012.
 The Respondent discharged Mack, Jennings,
and Smith on March 12, 2013.3
 The Respondent exercised discretion in dis-
charging each of the employees; it did not ap-
ply any uniform policy or practice regarding
discipline for their asserted misconduct.4
 The Respondent did not provide the Union
notice or an opportunity to bargain over any
of the discharges before implementing them.
 At the time of the March 12 discharges, the
Respondent and the Union had not reached an
initial collective-bargaining agreement or an-
other binding agreement governing discipline.
 The Respondent did not have a reasonable,
good-faith belief, at the time of the discharg-
es, that any of the three employees’ continued
presence on the job presented a serious, im-

3 Dates are in 2013 unless otherwise stated.
4 According to the stipulation, the Respondent asserts that it dis-
charged Mack for abandoning his post prior to completing his shift and
falsifying company documents; Jennings, for refusing to cooperate with
the Respondent’s investigation of Mack, making misrepresentations to
a supervisor, being insubordinate, and failing to report a coworker’s
violation of company policy; and Smith, for using profane and indecent
language toward a supervisor and causing a disturbance at a client site.
The record contains no other information about the asserted misconduct
underlying the discharges.
The stipulation states that “[i]n the circumstances presented in this
case, Respondent did not adhere to any uniform policy or practice with
respect to issuing discipline regarding [the employees’ asserted mis-
conduct].” This language is ambiguous as to whether the Respondent
adhered to no disciplinary policy or practice (i.e., it exercised unfet-
tered discretion) or applied a disciplinary policy or practice that was not
“uniform” because it permitted the exercise of discretion. A separate
provision of the stipulation states that the “Respondent exercised dis-
cretion in imposing discipline and discharge for violations of its Securi-
ty Officer’s Personnel Policy Manual, Guidelines and Rules, and/or any
other written or verbal policies or practices used or relied on by Re-
spondent, including, but not limited to: [the employees’ asserted mis-
conduct]. As explained below, we conclude that there is an obligation
to bargain over the discretionary aspects of discipline, a conclusion that
would apply whether or not the Respondent has a policy that reduces
(without eliminating) its discretion; thus, we need not resolve whether
the Respondent’s discretion was unfettered or partly limited by an
unspecified policy or practice.
minent danger to the Respondent’s business
or personnel or that any of them engaged in
unlawful conduct, posed a significant risk of
exposing the Respondent to legal liability for
the employee’s conduct, or threatened safety,
health, or security in or outside the work-
place.
 “[T]he issue presented is Respondent’s chal-
lenge to the legal validity of Alan Ritchey,
Inc., 359 NLRB No. 40 (2012) and the au-
thority of the Acting General Counsel and the
Regional Director to issue the Consolidated
Complaint in this case.”5

5 We reject the Respondent’s challenges to the authority of the Re-
gional Director and the Acting General Counsel to act in this case. The
Respondent argues that Regional Director Peter Ohr was invalidly
appointed by a Board that included recess appointee Craig Becker;
however, the Supreme Court’s Noel Canning decision, above, estab-
lished that Member Becker’s recess appointment to the Board was
valid. See also Mathew Enterprise d/b/a Stevens Creek Chrysler Jeep
Dodge v. NLRB, 771 F.3d 812 (D.C. Cir. 2014); Gestamp South Caro-
lina, LLC v. NLRB, 769 F.3d 254 (4th Cir. 2014). Thus, the Regional
Director was appointed by a properly constituted Board.
Regarding the Acting General Counsel’s authority, in its answer to
the complaint, the Respondent raised the following affirmative defense:
The Complaint should be dismissed because the Acting General
Counsel was not properly appointed and therefore lacks statutory au-
thority under the National Labor Relations Act to bring the Complaint
or to delegate such authority to the Regional Director.
For the reasons set forth below, we find no merit in the Respond-
ent’s argument that the Acting General Counsel was improperly or
unlawfully “appointed.” At the outset, we note that under the Federal
Vacancies Reform Act (FVRA), 5 U.S.C. §§ 3345 et seq., a person is
not “appointed” to serve in an acting capacity in a vacant office that
otherwise would be filled by appointment by the President, by and with
the advice and consent of the Senate. Rather, either the first assistant to
the vacant office performs the functions and duties of the office in an
acting capacity by operation of law pursuant to 5 U.S.C. § 3345(a)(1),
or the President directs another person to perform the functions and
duties of the vacant office in an acting capacity pursuant to 5 U.S.C. §
3345(a)(2) or (3).
On June 18, 2010, the President directed Lafe Solomon, then-
Director of the NLRB’s Office of Representation Appeals, to serve as
Acting General Counsel pursuant to subsection (a)(3) – the senior
agency employee provision. Under that provision, Solomon was eligi-
ble to serve as Acting General Counsel at the time the President di-
rected him to do so. See Hooks v. Kitsap Tenant Support Services, Inc.,
816 F.3d 550, 556, 557 (9th Cir. 2016); S.W. General, Inc. v. NLRB,
796 F.3d 67, 73 (D.C. Cir. 2015), petition for rehearing en banc denied,
Case No. 14–1107 (Jan. 20, 2016), petition for cert. granted 136 S.Ct.
2489 (Mem.) (June 20, 2016) (No. 15–1251). Thus, Solomon properly
assumed the duties of Acting General Counsel and we find no merit in
the Respondent’s affirmative defense that the Acting General Counsel
was “improperly and unlawfully appointed.”
We acknowledge that the decisions in Kitsap and S.W. General also
held that Solomon lost his authority as Acting General Counsel on
January 5, 2011, when the President nominated him to be General
Counsel. Kitsap, 816 F.3d at 558; S.W. General, 796 F.3d at 78. Al-
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 3
B. Discipline Unquestionably Works a Change in Em-
ployees’ Terms and Conditions of Employment
Section 8(a)(5) of the Act makes it an unfair labor
practice for an employer “to refuse to bargain collective-
ly with the representatives of [its] employees . . . .” In
NLRB v. Katz, 369 U.S. 736 (1962), the Supreme Court
approved the Board’s determination that an employer
violates Section 8(a)(5) by making unilateral changes to
the terms and conditions of employment of employees
represented by a union. Katz held that such a change “is
a circumvention of the duty to negotiate which frustrates
the objectives of § 8(a)(5) much as does a flat refusal” to
bargain. Id. at 743 (footnote omitted).6
The imposition of discipline on individual employees
alters their terms or conditions of employment and impli-
cates the duty to bargain if it is not controlled by pre-
existing, nondiscretionary employer policies or practices.
That conclusion flows easily from the terms of the Act
and established precedent. When an employee is termi-
nated—whether for lack of work, misconduct, or other
reasons—the termination is unquestionably a change in
the employee’s terms of employment. As the Board has
held:

though that question is still in litigation, we find that subsequent events
have rendered moot any argument that Solomon’s alleged loss of au-
thority after his nomination precludes further litigation in this matter:
On November 16, 2015, General Counsel Richard F. Griffin, Jr., is-
sued a Notice of Ratification in this case that states, in relevant part,
I was confirmed as General Counsel on November 4, 2013. After ap-
propriate review and consultation with my staff, I have decided that
the issuance of the complaint in this case and its continued prosecution
are a proper exercise of the General Counsel’s broad and unreviewa-
ble discretion under section 3(d) of the Act.
My action does not reflect an agreement with the appellate court rul-
ing in SW General. Rather, my decision is a practical response aimed
at facilitating the timely resolution of the charges that I have found
meritorious while the issues raised by SW General are being resolved.
Congress provided the option of ratification by expressly exempting
“the General Counsel of the National Labor Relations Board” from
the FVRA provisions that would otherwise preclude the ratification of
certain actions of other persons found to have served in violation of
the FVRA. (Citation omitted.)
For the foregoing reasons, I hereby ratify the issuance and continued
prosecution of the complaint.
In view of the independent decision of General Counsel Griffin to
continue prosecution of this matter, we reject as moot the Respondent’s
affirmative defense challenging the circumstances of Solomon’s “ap-
pointment” as Acting General Counsel.
6 The Supreme Court in Katz therefore agreed with the Board that
the employer acted unlawfully when, during bargaining with a newly
certified union, it made unilateral changes to its sick leave policy and to
its processes for granting both automatic and merit-based wage increas-
es. Id. at 744–747.
Under Sections 8(a)(5) and 8(d), it is unlawful for an
employer to refuse to bargain with respect to mandato-
ry subjects of bargaining. Fibreboard Paper Products
v. NLRB, 379 U.S. 203, 209–210 (1964). Termination
of employment constitutes such a mandatory subject.[7]
N.K. Parker Transport, Inc., 332 NLRB 547, 551 (2000);
see NLRB v. Advertisers Mfg. Co., 823 F.2d 1086, 1090 (7th
Cir. 1987) (“Laying off workers works a dramatic change in
their working conditions” and thus “[l]ayoffs are not a man-
agement prerogative [but] a mandatory subject of collective
bargaining”).8 Similarly, when an employee is demoted or
suspended without pay, the action represents a change in
terms and conditions of employment. See, e.g., Pillsbury
Chemical Co., 317 NLRB 261, 261 fn. 2 (1995) (holding
that employee’s demotion and substantial wage reduction
“rendered [employee’s working] conditions so difficult or
unpleasant” that constructive discharge was demonstrated).9
Finally, in Carpenters Local 1031, 321 NLRB 30 (1996),
the Board held that the suggestion in some prior Board deci-
sions that “a change in terms or conditions of employment
affecting only one employee does not constitute a violation
of Section 8(a)(5) . . . is erroneous as a matter of law,” and
the Board overruled all such prior cases. Id. at 32.
Not every unilateral change that affects terms and con-
ditions of employment triggers the duty to bargain. Ra-
ther, the Board asks “whether the changes had a materi-
al, substantial, and significant impact on the employees’
terms and conditions of employment.” Toledo Blade
Co., 343 NLRB 385, 387 (2004) (emphasis added). We
draw on this basic principle today. Serious disciplinary

7 Sec. 8(d) describes the conduct required of an employer and its
employees’ bargaining representative pursuant to the obligation to
“bargain collectively.” As the dissent notes, Sec. 8(d) also limits the
Board’s ability to impose particular terms on parties; as explained
below, today’s decision does not exceed its limits.
8 See also Harris v. Quinn, 134 S.Ct. 2618, 2636 (2014) (“Under
federal law, mandatory subjects include . . . termination of employment
. . .”) (citing N.K. Parker Transport, supra); Fallbrook Hospital Corp.
d/b/a Fallbrook Hospital, 360 NLRB No. 73, slip op. at 12 (2014) (“An
employer has an obligation to bargain with its employees’ bargaining
representative over terms and conditions of work. Termination of
employment is unquestionably a mandatory subject of bargaining.”)
(citations omitted), rev. denied, enforcement granted by 785 F.3d 729
(D.C. Cir. 2015); Ryder Distribution Resources, 302 NLRB 76, 90
(1991) (“A grievance about a discharge is clearly a mandatory subject
of bargaining.”).
9 In Pillsbury Chemical, the Board also held, contrary to the judge,
that the employer had violated Sec. 8(a)(5) by informing the demoted
employee of the demotion and layoff decision without first providing
the union notice and an opportunity to bargain over the decision and its
effects. Id. at 261–262.
Cf. Falcon Wheel Division L.L.C., 338 NLRB 576 (2002) (holding
that the layoff of one employee was a material, substantial, and signifi-
cant change). A suspension would affect an employee in much the
same way that a temporary layoff would, if not more so.
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD4
actions such as suspension, demotion, and discharge
plainly have an inevitable and immediate impact on em-
ployees’ tenure, status, or earnings. Requiring bargain-
ing before these sanctions are imposed is appropriate, as
we will explain, because of the impact on the employee
and because of the harm caused to the union’s effective-
ness as the employees’ representative if bargaining is
postponed. Just as plainly, however, other actions that
may nevertheless be referred to as discipline and that are
rightly viewed as bargainable, such as oral and written
warnings, have a lesser impact on employees, viewed as
of the time when action is taken and assuming that they
do not themselves automatically result in additional dis-
cipline based on an employer’s progressive disciplinary
system. Bargaining over these lesser sanctions—which
is required insofar as they have a “material, substantial,
and significant impact” on terms and conditions of em-
ployment—may properly be deferred until after they are
imposed.10
C. The Board Has Consistently Held that Discretionary
Changes in Terms and Conditions of Employment
Cannot Be Unilateral
The Board has recognized that an employer’s obliga-
tion to maintain the status quo sometimes entails an obli-
gation to make changes, when those changes are an es-
tablished part of the status quo. Thus, if an employer has
an established practice of granting employees a 1-percent
increase in wages on the anniversary of their hire date, an
employer not only does not violate its duty to bargain by
making that change unilaterally, it violates its duty if it
fails to do so. Southeastern Michigan Gas Co., 198
NLRB 1221 (1972), affd. 485 F.2d 1239 (6th Cir. 1973).
“The cases make it crystal clear that the vice involved in
both the unlawful increase situation and the unlawful
refusal to increase situation is that the employer has
changed the existing conditions of employment. It is this
change which is prohibited and which forms the basis of
the unfair labor practice charge.” NLRB v. Dothan Ea-
gle, Inc., 434 F.2d 93, 98 (5th Cir. 1970) (emphasis in

10 We recognize that warnings may in certain cases demonstrate su-
pervisory authority to discipline or to effectively recommend discipline.
See, e.g., Pacific Coast M.S. Industries, 355 NLRB 1422, 1425 fn. 23
(2010). In assessing supervisory status, however, our concern is with
what the issuance of warnings says about the authority of the individual
imposing the discipline over other employees, not with the warning’s
immediate effect on the terms and conditions of the employee receiving
it. Further, nothing in the distinction we draw for the specific purpose
at issue in this case suggests that a bargaining representative would not
have a right to obtain information concerning warnings and similar
personnel actions under the broad relevance standard applicable to
information requests.
In short, the distinction we draw here among types of discipline for
purposes of a pre-imposition duty to bargain does not modify Board
precedents in other contexts concerning discipline.
original). And if the change is consistent with estab-
lished practice in some respects but also involves an ex-
ercise of discretion by the employer, the employer must
bargain over the discretionary aspects of the change.
Oneita Knitting Mills, 205 NLRB 500 (1973), illus-
trates this proposition. There, the Board held that an
employer violated Section 8(a)(5) by unilaterally grant-
ing merit wage increases to represented employees, even
though it had a past practice of granting such increases.
The Board explained:
An employer with a past history of a merit increase
program neither may discontinue that program (as we
found in Southeastern Michigan [supra]) nor may he
any longer continue to unilaterally exercise his discre-
tion with respect to such increases, once an exclusive
bargaining agent is selected. N.L.R.B. v. Katz, 3[69]
U.S. 736 (1962). What is required is a maintenance of
preexisting practices, i.e., the general outline of the
program[;] however[,] the implementation of that pro-
gram (to the extent that discretion has existed in deter-
mining the amounts or timing of the increases), be-
comes a matter as to which the bargaining agent is enti-
tled to be consulted.
Id. at 500. Katz itself involved an employer’s grant of merit
increases that were “in no sense automatic, but were in-
formed by a large measure of discretion.” NLRB v. Katz,
369 U.S. at 746.
In the decades since Katz and Oneita Knitting, across a
range of terms and conditions of employment, the Board
has applied the principle that even regular and recurring
changes by an employer constitute unilateral action when
the employer maintains discretion in relation to the crite-
ria it considers.11 For example, in Washoe Medical Cen-
ter, 337 NLRB 202 (2001), the Board applied Oneita
Knitting and concluded that an employer’s “substantial
degree of discretion” in placing newly hired employees
into quartiles within their positions’ wage ranges, based
on subjective judgments, required the employer to bar-
gain with the union before implementing the wage rates.
Id. at 202. As discussed in detail below, the Board ma-
jority in Washoe expressly rejected the dissent’s conten-
tion that there was no duty to bargain because “the
[r]espondent’s policy and procedure for setting initial
wage rates entails the consistent application of uniform
standards and, thus, curtails its exercise of discretion.”
Id. In Eugene Iovine, Inc., 328 NLRB 294 (1999), enfd.

11 The dissent—accurately but irrelevantly—points out that several
of the cases on which we rely did not involve decisions about disci-
pline. Because we apply duty-to-bargain principles that are well estab-
lished in the context of terms and conditions of employment other than
discipline, it is logical that we rely on those cases here.
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 5
1 Fed. Appx. 8 (2d Cir. 2001) (unpublished), the Board
held that an employer’s recurring unilateral reductions in
employees’ hours of work were discretionary and there-
fore required bargaining: “[T]here was no reasonable
certainty as to the timing and criteria for a reduction in
employee hours; rather, the employer’s discretion to de-
cide whether to reduce employee hours appear[ed] to be
unlimited.” Id. at 294 (internal quotations omitted). In
Adair Standish Corp., 292 NLRB 890, 890 fn. 1 (1989),
enfd. in relevant part 912 F.2d 854 (6th Cir. 1990), the
Board required an employer to bargain regarding eco-
nomically motivated layoffs, when the owner selected
the employees to be laid off based not on seniority but on
his own judgment of their ability. In so holding, the
Board rejected the employer’s argument that its failure to
bargain was permissible “because of its past practice of
instituting economic layoffs due to lack of work.” The
Board held that the employer’s practice before its em-
ployees were represented did not provide a defense:
once the union represented the employees, “the
[r]espondent could no longer continue unilaterally to
exercise its discretion with respect to layoffs.”12
As explained above, discipline may alter core compo-
nents of employees’ terms and conditions of employ-
ment. Moreover, as the Board held in Daily News of Los
Angeles, “the Katz doctrine . . . neither distinguishes
among the various terms and conditions of employment
on which an employer takes unilateral action nor does it
discriminate on the basis of the nature of a particular
unilateral act.” Daily News of Los Angeles, 315 NLRB
1236, 1238 (1994), enfd. 73 F.3d 406 (D.C. Cir. 1996).
Consistency with these precedents and their underlying
principles demands that we apply the Oneita Knitting
approach to require bargaining before discretionary dis-
cipline (in the form of a suspension, demotion, discharge,
or analogous sanction) is imposed, just as we do in cases
involving discretionary layoffs, wage changes, and other

12 Reviewing courts have similarly concluded that discretionary de-
cisions are subject to bargaining. See Garment Workers Local 512 v.
NLRB (Felbro, Inc.), 795 F.2d 705, 711 (9th Cir. 1986) (rejecting em-
ployer’s defense that unilateral economic layoffs were “in accordance
with its established practice” and thus were lawful; the court held that,
even assuming that economic layoffs are not inherently discretionary,
the employer’s “layoff procedure was ad hoc and highly discretionary:
before layoff, decisions were made whether to transfer employees to a
busier department, to implement a permanent or part-week layoff, and
to follow seniority or other methods in selecting the employee to lay
off”), abrogated on other grounds by Hoffman Plastic Compounds, 535
U.S. 137 (2002); NLRB v. Allis-Chalmers Corp., 601 F.2d 870, 875–
876 (5th Cir. 1979) (the court, rejecting employer’s “conten[tion] that
the [wage] increases were in compliance with a periodic survey of
wages and benefits and were, therefore, not subject to bargaining,”
found “the increases were not automatic, in that Allis-Chalmers exer-
cised considerable discretion in determining the timing and amount.
Therefore, the union could properly demand bargaining.”).
changes in core terms or conditions of employment,
where bargaining is required before an employer’s deci-
sion is implemented.13 Accordingly, where an employ-
er’s disciplinary system is fixed as to the broad standards
for determining whether a violation has occurred, but
discretionary as to whether or what type of discipline
will be imposed in particular circumstances, we hold that
an employer must maintain the fixed aspects of the disci-
pline system and bargain with the union over the discre-
tionary aspects (if any), e.g., whether to impose disci-
pline in individual cases and, if so, the nature of disci-
pline to be imposed. The obligation to provide notice
and an opportunity to bargain is triggered before a sus-
pension, demotion, discharge, or analogous sanction is
imposed, but after imposition for lesser sanctions, such
as oral or written warnings.
This conclusion is strongly supported by the Board’s
reasoning in Washoe Medical Center, 337 NLRB 202
(2001). Washoe was the Board’s only substantive dis-
cussion of the obligation to bargain over discretionary
discipline prior to Fresno Bee, 337 NLRB 1161 (2002),
on which the Respondent and dissent rely and which we
discuss in more detail below.14 In Washoe, the Board

13 Disciplinary action is indisputably the sort of management deci-
sion that is “almost exclusively ‘an aspect of the relationship’ between
employer and employee.” First National Maintenance Corp. v. NLRB,
452 U.S. 666, 677 (1981) (quoting Allied Chemical & Alkali Workers v.
Pittsburgh Plate Glass, 404 U.S. 157, 178 (1971)). The dissent quotes
First National Maintenance to suggest that we should find no obliga-
tion to bargain over the decision to impose discipline for the same
reasons that the Court found no obligation to bargain over First Nation-
al Maintenance’s decision to partially terminate its business. But the
Court made clear that it was not addressing management decisions that
(like discipline) are almost exclusively an aspect of the relationship
between employer and employee. Nor was the Court addressing man-
agement decisions that “have only an indirect and attenuated impact on
the employment relationship.” Id. at 676–677. Rather, the Court was
considering “a third type of management decision, one that had a direct
impact on employment . . . but had as its focus only the economic prof-
itability of the contract [that the employer intended to terminate], a
concern under these facts wholly apart from the employment relation-
ship.” Id. at 677. The Court characterized such a decision as “involv-
ing a change in the scope and direction of the enterprise,” thus making
clear that the considerations the Court applied for that type of decision
simply do not apply to a decision to impose discipline.
14 The dissent makes much of the fact that although the Act became
law in 1935, it is only now that the Board is finding that employers
have a pre-disciplinary duty to bargain. The timing that the dissent
finds so troubling is easily explained, however, in light of the proce-
dures prescribed by the Act for unfair labor practice cases. The Board
can consider only those cases that a private party has initiated by filing
a charge. Thus, the Board will address an issue only if it happens to
arise in a case filed by a member of the public and, usually, only if it is
necessary to the result in the case. Washoe presented the issue but did
not require its resolution. Fresno Bee, as explained below, resolved it
incorrectly. Alan Ritchey, in our view, resolved it correctly but was
invalidated for procedural reasons. This is simply the nature of a pro-
cess that relies primarily on case-by-case adjudication.
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD6
affirmed the judge’s dismissal of 8(a)(5) charges arising
out of individual acts of discipline, on the ground that the
union there had not sought to engage in pre-imposition
bargaining. Significantly, however, the Board expressly
declined to rely on the alternative rationale articulated by
the judge, a rationale tracking that of the judge in Fresno
Bee. In refusing to apply that analysis, the Washoe
Board stated:
In light of the Board’s holding in Oneita Knitting Mills
. . . we reject the judge’s comment . . . that “[I]t is not
sufficient that the General Counsel show only some ex-
ercise of discretion to prove the alleged violation; the
General Counsel must also demonstrate that imposition
of discipline constituted a change in Respondent’s poli-
cies and procedures.” [Footnote omitted.]
337 NLRB at 202 fn. 1.15
In fact, the Washoe Board applied the holding in
Oneita Knitting, not only to reject the judge’s suggestion
that the employer had no duty to bargain over individual
acts of discipline absent a change in its disciplinary poli-
cies, but also to reject a parallel argument concerning the
assignment of initial wage rates to new employees:
[T]he issue is not whether the Respondent unilaterally
discontinued its practice of establishing discretionary
starting wage rates for newly hired employees based on
numerous criteria. Rather, the issue is whether the Re-
spondent failed to provide the Union with advance no-
tice and an opportunity to bargain about the implemen-
tation of these discretionary wage rates, as required by
Oneita, supra. . . . .
[The employer’s] judgments [in selecting and
weighting the criteria on which it rated new employees]
are necessarily subjective, as it is unlikely that any two
applicants or employees will be precisely comparable.
It is this substantial degree of discretion, as well as the
unavoidable exercise of such discretion each time the
Respondent establishes a wage rate for a new employ-
ee, that requires the Respondent to bargain with the Un-
ion, pursuant to the Board’s holding in Oneita.
Id. at 202. Although the discussion in Washoe concerned
starting wage rates, its reasoning applies with equal force to
other significant employment terms.
The Respondent and dissent argue that the Board held
in Fresno Bee, 337 NLRB 1161 (2002), that an employer

15 Although the dissent dismisses this rejection by the Board as dicta,
it is notable that the Board was sufficiently troubled by the judge’s
misstatement to make a point of correcting it, rather than leaving it
unaddressed, particularly given the Board’s general demonstration of
restraint in resolving the case on a narrow basis.
has no pre-imposition duty to bargain over discretionary
discipline. There, the Board, without comment, affirmed
a judge’s dismissal of 8(a)(5) charges arising out of the
imposition of individual discipline. The General Coun-
sel, drawing on the principles and precedent that we dis-
cuss here, had argued that the employer “exercised con-
siderable discretion in disciplining its employees and is
therefore required to notify and, upon request, bargain to
impasse with the Union over each and every imposition
of discipline.” 337 NLRB at 1186. The judge rejected
this argument, but her rationale for doing so misapplied
the Board’s case law and failed to explain why discipline
should be treated as fundamentally different from other
employer unilateral changes in terms and conditions of
employment.
As her decision reveals, the judge’s error was to con-
clude that because the employer had not changed its dis-
ciplinary system, the imposition of discipline with respect
to individual employees, even if it involved the exercise
of discretion, did not amount to a unilateral change. The
judge recognized that the “discipline administered to unit
employees by [the employer] is, at least in part, discre-
tionary.” Id. at 1186. Nevertheless, the judge reasoned
that the “fact that the procedures reserve to [the employ-
er] a degree of discretion or that every conceivable disci-
plinary event is not specified, does not vitiate the system
as a past practice and policy.” Id. The General Counsel
had not contended that the employer’s “discipline poli-
cies were unilaterally altered,” and “[t]here was no evi-
dence that [the employer] did not apply its preexisting
employment rules or disciplinary system in determining
discipline.” Id. “Therefore,” the judge concluded, the
employer “made no unilateral change in terms and condi-
tions of employment when it applied discipline.” Id. at
1186–1187 (emphasis added).
Under our case law, the judge’s conclusion in Fresno
Bee was a non sequitur. As we have explained, the les-
son of well-established Board precedent is that the em-
ployer has both a duty to maintain an existing policy
governing terms and conditions of employment and a
duty to bargain over discretionary applications of that
policy. It was no answer to the General Counsel’s argu-
ment in Fresno Bee, then, to say that because the em-
ployer’s disciplinary policy had stayed the same, the em-
ployer had no duty to bargain over discretionary discipli-
nary decisions. Nor did it suffice to point out that the
employer had bargained over the discipline after it was
imposed: the General Counsel was arguing for a pre-
imposition duty to bargain. Id. at 1187.
As observed, the Fresno Bee Board simply adopted the
judge’s rationale, and the dissent here would follow
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 7
suit.16 But the judge’s rationale—the only rationale ar-
ticulated in the decision—was demonstrably incorrect,
and we decline to follow it. See Goya Foods of Florida,
356 NLRB 1461, 1463 (2011) (“We are not prepared
mechanically to follow a precedent that itself ignored
prior decisions, without explanation.”). Nor do we find
the dissent’s arguments in support of the decision persua-
sive. To the extent Fresno Bee is inconsistent with our
conclusion here, it is overruled.
The dissent argues that NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc.,
420 U.S. 251 (1975), in which the Supreme Court agreed
with the Board’s holding that an employee has a Section
7 right to union representation in investigatory interviews
that the employee reasonably believes may lead to disci-
pline, precludes the bargaining obligation we impose
today. Properly understood, however, the rights and du-
ties adopted here are in harmony with those addressed by
Weingarten. In affirming the Board’s recognition of the
right to union representation in certain investigatory in-
terviews, the Court agreed with the Board’s qualification
that the employer had no obligation to bargain with the
union representative. Id. at 259–260. But the Board’s
representations and the Court’s ruling addressed the in-
vestigatory interview only.17 That is, the limited right

16 The dissent argues that no change has occurred when disciplinary
actions are imposed subject to an existing discipline process or practice
(which the dissent, without record support, presumes to be the situation
here). Even assuming that a disciplinary process or practice was in
place and was not itself modified, we reject the dissent’s contention that
no legally cognizable change has occurred when an employer relies on
the existing process or practice to take disciplinary action against an
employee. To argue that, in such a case, nothing has changed evinces
an utter failure to consider the matter from the viewpoint of the disci-
plined employee whose rights are at issue: she will undoubtedly, and
quite reasonably, be certain that her terms and conditions of employ-
ment have changed. Further, if the imposition of disciplinary action
were not a change in terms and conditions of employment, as the dis-
sent contends, there would be no obligation to bargain over discipline
either before or after imposing it, and there would seemingly be no
foundation for the longstanding consensus that grievance procedures
are a mandatory subject of bargaining.
17 See NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc., Brief for the Board, 1974 WL
186290 (U.S.). In a handful of pre-Weingarten decisions, too, the
Board referred to the absence of an obligation to bargain. See Mobil
Oil Corp., 196 NLRB 1052 (1972), enf. denied 482 F.2d 842 (7th Cir.
1973); Illinois Bell Telephone Co., 192 NLRB 834 (1971); Jacobe-
Pearson Ford, Inc., 172 NLRB 594 (1968). Like the Weingarten deci-
sion, however, those Board decisions addressed whether employees
have a right to union assistance at investigatory interviews, not whether
the union has a right to notice and an opportunity to bargain before the
employer implements its decision to impose discipline.
Further, the right that we adopt today does not conflict with the rep-
resentations in the Board’s Weingarten brief, in which “the Board
acknowledge[d] that the duty to bargain does not arise prior to the
employer’s decision to impose discipline.” Brief for the Board at 10
(emphasis added); see also id. at 15, 16. As explained elsewhere in this
decision, the obligation to provide the union with notice and an oppor-
tunity to bargain arises after the employer has decided, at least prelimi-
confirmed in Weingarten applies only to an employer’s
investigation—an investigation that may or may not lead
to discipline affecting an employee’s terms and condi-
tions of employment—and arises only when the employ-
er seeks to interview the employee as part of such an
investigation. In other words, an investigation by itself is
not, and may not result in, a change in employees’ terms
and conditions of employment and thus does not consti-
tute discipline or trigger a bargaining obligation.
Weingarten, which is grounded in Section 8(a)(1),
seeks to ensure that employers carrying out investiga-
tions do not restrain or coerce employees in the exercise
of their Section 7 rights to engage in concerted activity
for mutual aid or protection. An employee who seeks
her union representative’s assistance in responding to an
employer’s investigation that may lead to discipline is,
quite literally, engaging in “concerted activit[y] for the
purpose of . . . mutual aid or protection” under Section 7.
For this reason, the Weingarten right is held by the em-
ployee, not by the union. It must be asserted by the em-
ployee, not by a union representative, and it can be

narily, that discipline is warranted, but before the employer has actually
imposed discipline. Contrary to the dissent’s argument, this approach
is consistent with our decisional bargaining requirements in other con-
texts, and simply embodies the principle that an employer must bargain
in good faith about its intended action before its decision is finalized
and implemented. Weingarten rights, in contrast, arise while the em-
ployer is still investigating whether misconduct occurred and warrants
discipline.
The dissent treats the Board’s pre-Weingarten decisions and its
Weingarten brief to the Court as having pledged that the Board would
never find an obligation to bargain before the imposition of discipline,
and the Court’s Weingarten decision as having relied on those purport-
ed pledges. But, as explained, the right at issue here differs materially
from that addressed in the Weingarten decision or in the briefs and
decisions leading to it. In Weingarten, a grievance-arbitration proce-
dure was in place, and the issue was whether Sec. 8(a)(1), not Sec.
8(a)(5), required an employer to permit a union representative to be
present at an investigatory interview. It is immaterial whether, at the
time of Weingarten, the Board contemplated the existence of the bar-
gaining obligation that we address today. Even if the Board had, at that
time, expressly disclaimed the right that we address here, it is well
established that the Board may change its position as long as it explains
its rationale for the change. See NLRB v. Curtin Matheson Scientific,
Inc., 494 U.S. 775, 787 (1990) (“a Board rule is entitled to deference
even if it represents a departure from the Board’s prior policy” (citing
Weingarten, supra at 265–266); Chelsea Industries, Inc. v. NLRB, 285
F.3d 1073, 1076–1077 (D.C. Cir. 2002) (“The Board is at liberty to
change its policies as long as it justifies the change with a reasoned
explanation.”) (quotation marks and citation omitted); Kmart Corp. v.
NLRB, 174 F.3d 834, 842 (7th Cir. 1999) (“[T]his Court has held that
the Board is free to change its mind on matters of law that are within its
competence to determine, provided it gives a reasoned analysis in sup-
port of the change.”) (quotation marks and citation omitted). We ex-
plain today why finding an obligation to provide notice and an oppor-
tunity to bargain before the imposition of discipline better effectuates
the Act’s policy of encouraging collective bargaining under Sec. 8(a)(5)
than the Board’s prior denial of that obligation.
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD8
waived by the employee. See, e.g., Appalachian Power
Co., 253 NLRB 931, 933 (1980), enfd. mem., 660 F.2d
488 (4th Cir. 1981). In contrast, the obligation to refrain
from unilateral action regarding mandatory subjects of
bargaining is grounded in Section 8(a)(5). Moreover, the
two rights arise at different points in time: the
Weingarten right arises during an investigation into
whether discipline is merited, while the right to notice
and an opportunity to bargain arises after such an inves-
tigation results in a preliminary determination that disci-
pline is warranted, but prior to its imposition. Thus, al-
though the Weingarten Court agreed with the Board that
an employer’s refusal to bargain with a union in an in-
vestigatory meeting that may lead to discipline does not
violate Section 8(a)(1), the Court, contrary to the dis-
sent’s contention, expressed no view concerning whether
the employer’s unilateral decision to discipline an em-
ployee violates Section 8(a)(5) by denying the employ-
ees’ chosen representative the right to participate in
good-faith bargaining over mandatory subjects of bar-
gaining.
It is our view that the well-established Weingarten
right and the bargaining obligation adopted here work in
conjunction to ensure that the participants’ rights are
respected at each stage of the disciplinary process. Thus,
an employer with a work force represented by a union
would have the following legal obligations:
As Weingarten established, the employer must permit
the union to be present at an investigatory interview with
an employee, should the employer decide to conduct one,
if the employee reasonably believes that the investigation
could lead to discipline and requests the union’s pres-
ence. The employer need not bargain with the union at
that interview, however. (As Weingarten further estab-
lished, if the employer is unwilling to allow the union to
be present at the investigatory interview, the employer
may forgo the interview.)
Under today’s decision, after the employer has prelim-
inarily decided (with or without an investigatory inter-
view) to impose serious discipline, it must provide the
union with notice and an opportunity to bargain over the
discretionary aspects of its decision before proceeding to
impose the discipline. As explained below, at this stage,
the employer need not bargain to agreement or impasse,
if it commences bargaining promptly. In exigent circum-
stances, as defined, the employer may act prior to bar-
gaining provided that, immediately afterward, it provides
the union with notice and an opportunity to bargain about
the disciplinary decision and its effects. Finally, if the
employer has properly implemented its disciplinary deci-
sion without first reaching agreement or impasse, the
employer must bargain with the union to agreement or
impasse after imposing discipline.
D. An Obligation to Bargain Prior to Imposing
Discipline Is Not an Unreasonable Burden
We recognize that an obligation to bargain prior to im-
posing discipline may, in some cases, delay the employ-
er’s action or change the decision that it would have
reached unilaterally. With regard to the latter, it is our
view that permitting the employee to address the pro-
posed discipline through his or her representative in bar-
gaining is likely to lead to a more accurate understanding
of the facts, a more even-handed and uniform application
of rules of conduct, often a better and fairer result, and a
result the employee is more able to accept. See First
National Maintenance Corp. v. NLRB, 452 U.S. 666, 668
(1981) (“The concept of mandatory bargaining is prem-
ised on the belief that collective discussions . . . will re-
sult in decisions that are better for both management and
labor and for society as a whole.”).
With regard to possible delay that a bargaining obliga-
tion may cause in implementing discipline, we have
sought in our decision today to minimize the burden on
employers in that regard to the greatest extent possible
consistent with our duty to protect Section 7 rights, in-
cluding the right of employees to be represented by their
chosen representative.18
First, as explained above, the pre-imposition obligation
attaches only with regard to the discretionary aspects of
those disciplinary actions that have an inevitable and
immediate impact on an employee’s tenure, status, or
earnings, such as suspension, demotion, or discharge.
Thus, most warnings, corrective actions, counselings,
and the like will not require pre-imposition bargaining,
assuming they do not automatically result in more seri-
ous discipline, based on an employer’s progressive disci-
plinary system, that itself would require such bargaining.
Second, where the pre-imposition duty to bargain ex-
ists, the employer’s obligation is simply to provide the
union with notice and an opportunity to bargain before
discipline is imposed. This entails sufficient advance
notice to the union to provide for meaningful discussion
concerning the grounds for imposing discipline in the
particular case, as well as the grounds for the form of
discipline chosen, to the extent that this choice involved
an exercise of discretion. It will also entail providing the
union with relevant information, if a timely request is
made, under the Board’s established approach to infor-

18 The dissent contends that our efforts to accommodate the compet-
ing rights and interests at issue only worsen the effects of this decision
by creating widespread uncertainty and extensive litigation. For rea-
sons explained elsewhere in this decision, we disagree.
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 9
mation requests. (Again, we note that, in this context,
the scope of the duty to provide information is limited to
information relevant to the subject of bargaining: the
discretionary aspects of the employer’s disciplinary poli-
cy.) The aim is to enable the union to effectively repre-
sent the employee by, for example, providing exculpato-
ry or mitigating information to the employer, pointing
out disparate treatment, or suggesting alternative courses
of action. But the employer is not required to bargain to
agreement or impasse at this stage; rather, if the parties
do not reach agreement, the employer may impose the
selected disciplinary action and then continue bargaining
to agreement or impasse. Moreover, the employer has no
duty to bargain over those aspects of its disciplinary de-
cision that are controlled by nondiscretionary elements of
existing policies and procedures. Thus, the less discre-
tion an employer exercises, the less bargaining will be
required of the employer.
Third, an employer may act unilaterally and impose
discipline without providing the union with notice and an
opportunity to bargain in any situation that presents exi-
gent circumstances: that is, where an employer has a
reasonable, good-faith belief that an employee’s contin-
ued presence on the job presents a serious, imminent
danger to the employer’s business or personnel.19 The
scope of such exigent circumstances is best defined go-
ing forward, case by case, but it would surely encompass
situations where (for example) the employer reasonably
and in good faith believes that an employee has engaged
in unlawful conduct that poses a significant risk of ex-
posing the employer to legal liability for the employee’s
conduct, or threatens safety, health, or security in or out-
side the workplace. Thus, our holding today does not
prevent an employer from quickly removing an employ-
ee from the workplace, limiting the employee’s access to
coworkers (consistent with the employer’s legal obliga-
tions) or equipment, or taking other necessary actions to
address exigent circumstances when they exist.20
Finally, an employer need not await an overall impasse
in bargaining before imposing discipline, so long as it
exercises its discretion within existing standards. Con-
sidering the practicalities of discipline, we hold that so
long as the employer continues to apply existing stand-

19 The Board has developed an analogous approach to the duty to
bargain over other issues where economic exigencies exist. See RBE
Electronics of S.D., 320 NLRB 80 (1995); Bottom Line Enterprises,
302 NLRB 373 (1991), enfd. mem. 15 F.3d 1087 (9th Cir. 1994).
20 In the circumstances described, an employer could suspend an
employee pending investigation, as many employers already do. An
employer who takes such action should promptly notify the union of its
action and the basis for it and bargain over the suspension after the fact,
as well as bargain with the union regarding any subsequent disciplinary
decisions resulting from the employer’s investigation.
ards and procedures for discipline, the employer’s duty is
simply to bargain over the discretionary aspect of the
discipline, in accord with today’s decision. After ful-
filling its pre-imposition responsibilities as described
above, the employer may act, but it must continue to bar-
gain concerning its action, including the possibility of
rescinding it, until reaching agreement or impasse.21 We
believe such a rule appropriately defines the statutory
duty to bargain in good faith in this area critical to both
employers and employees.22

21 The dissent’s provocative suggestion that a union would demand
bargaining for the reinstatement of an employee who was discharged
because he “killed, assaulted, or raped a coworker” (perhaps an em-
ployee represented by the union) demonstrates the dissent’s inclination
to gin up fear of a falling sky, rather than to seriously grapple with
parties’ bargaining obligations. With respect to pre-imposition bargain-
ing, of course, such a situation would demonstrably come within the
exigent-circumstances exception discussed above. With respect to
post-imposition bargaining—an obligation that already exists under
current law—we see no basis for the dissent’s concern. Even assuming
the imagined felonious employee were not imprisoned and thus un-
available for reinstatement, we have no doubt that such bargaining
would reach agreement or impasse in exceedingly short order.
22 An employer seeking a safe harbor regarding its duty to bargain
before imposing discipline may negotiate with the union an interim
agreement expressly waiving the union’s right to pre-imposition bar-
gaining and providing for some mutually satisfactory alternative, such
as a grievance procedure that would permit the employer to act first
followed by a grievance and, potentially, arbitration, as is typical in
most complete collective-bargaining agreements.
The dissent suggests an effort, in violation of Sec. 8(d), to coerce
employers into reaching interim grievance and arbitration agreements.
We emphasize that, within the requirements of good-faith bargaining,
parties remain free to structure their bargaining and address their issues
in whatever mutually agreeable ways best suit their needs, including by
reaching more limited agreements or by simply meeting their pre-
imposition obligation to bargain. See, e.g., Cellco Partnership d/b/a
Verizon Wireless, 29–CA–158754, JD(NY)–27–16 (judge’s decision,
August 1, 2016) (employer and union reached agreement to hold what
they called an “Alan Ritchey meeting” before discharging any unit
employee). Contrary to the dissent, there is no “heavy finger on the
scale” or ominous “offer that employers cannot refuse”; there is simply
an available alternative that employers can take or leave, as they
choose. In any event, even if the option of a safe harbor were to have
the effect of motivating employers to reach interim agreements, such
motivation would be entirely consistent with the policies of the Act,
which encourage not only the process of collective bargaining but also
the reaching of a collectively bargained agreement. And an employer’s
motivation to reach an interim agreement, so as to regain flexibility that
it had before its employees unionized, is no different from the employ-
er’s motivation to negotiate a management-rights clause; in both situa-
tions, the employer’s choice to negotiate a provision is simply a rational
response to the legitimate incentives of the Act. We no more impose an
interim agreement on employers here than the Katz doctrine imposes
management-rights clauses on employers who seek to avoid having to
bargain over otherwise mandatory subjects of bargaining under the Act.
Whatever incentives the Act creates for employers, they remain free to
make the strategic choices they see fit, within the limits of the law.
The dissent also predicts the virtual collapse of contract bargaining
under an avalanche of disciplinary disputes, which it refers to as “sin-
gle-issue bargaining.” We disagree with the dissent’s argument that we
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD10
Thus, the narrow scope of the bargaining obligation
and the limited nature of the duty to bargain are tailored
to minimize their effect on an employer’s ability to effec-
tively manage its workforce. For example, in a work-
place where the employer has an established practice of
disciplining employees for absenteeism, the decision to
impose discipline for such conduct will not give rise to
an obligation to bargain over whether absenteeism is
generally an appropriate grounds for discipline. Instead,
bargaining will be limited to the specific case at hand:
for example, if the employer consistently suspends em-
ployees for absenteeism but the length of the suspension
is discretionary, bargaining will be limited to the latter
issue. Our expectation is that bargaining over the limited
topics that implicate employer discretion will yield expe-
ditious results, and that it will, in fact, be the norm that
parties will reach agreement without testing the limits of
the pre-imposition bargaining period. If our expectation
proves inaccurate, any constraint on the employer’s abil-
ity to effectuate its desired discipline will be limited, as
we have made clear, because we impose no duty to bar-
gain to impasse prior to imposing discipline.
To hold otherwise, as the dissent would, and permit
employers to exercise unilateral discretion over disci-
pline after employees select a representative—i.e., to
proceed as before despite the fact that the employees
have chosen to be represented—would demonstrate to
employees that the Act and the Board’s processes im-
plementing it are ineffectual, and would render the union
(typically, newly certified or recognized) that represents
the employees impotent.23 Employees covered by the

have created an obligation to engage in single-issue bargaining, contra-
ry to the Board’s overall-impasse doctrine. The cases on which the
dissent relies for this proposition all involve a party’s preconditioning
contract bargaining progress on the resolution of a single issue that is
part of the contract negotiations. Here, in contrast, the individual disci-
plinary actions are stand-alone issues that are separate and distinct from
the issues to be resolved in contract bargaining. Indeed, by the dis-
sent’s reasoning, every grievance proceeding to resolve an employee
disciplinary issue would amount to improper single-issue bargaining.
As for the dissent’s hypothesized ill effects on bargaining, especially
first-contract bargaining, we think it equally plausible that bargaining to
address limited issues regarding individual disciplines will help the
parties to gain negotiating experience and develop a relationship that
will assist them in negotiating a collective-bargaining agreement.
23 Courts have recognized that employees are particularly vulnerable
to unfair labor practices when the bargaining relationship is new and
the parties are negotiating for an initial contract. See, e.g., Arlook v. S.
Lichtenberg & Co., 952 F.2d 367, 373 (11th Cir. 1992) (reversing
district court’s denial of interim injunctive relief; observing that the
“[t]he Union was only recently certified by the Board and the employ-
ees were bargaining for their first contract” and that “[t]hese two facts
make bargaining units highly susceptible to management misconduct”);
see also Ahearn v. Jackson Hospital Corp., 351 F.3d 226, 239 (6th Cir.
2003) (affirming grant of interim injunctive relief and noting that “the
Union was quite new and had not even signed its first contract”) (citing
Act attain union representation after participating in a
government-sanctioned process and only if a majority
demonstrates a desire for representation. Employees do
not lightly undertake that process. If, after employees
follow this path, their chosen representative can lawfully
be denied the opportunity to represent them, especially in
such a critical context as significant disciplinary action,
the employees might reasonably conclude that their
statutory rights are illusory. In addition, as Circuit Judge
Posner explained in a case involving unilateral layoffs
after the union was certified but before a first contract
was executed:
The rule that requires an employer to negotiate with the
union before changing the working conditions in the
bargaining unit is intended to prevent the employer
from undermining the union by taking steps which
suggest to the workers that it is powerless to protect
them. Of course, if the change is authorized by the col-
lective bargaining agreement, it is not in derogation of
the union and is not an unfair labor practice. But there
was no agreement here. Laying off workers works a
dramatic change in their working conditions (to say the
least), and if the company lays them off without con-
sulting with the union and without having agreed to
procedures for layoffs in a collective bargaining
agreement it sends a dramatic signal of the union’s im-
potence.
NLRB v. Advertisers Mfg. Co., 823 F.2d 1086, 1090 (7th
Cir. 1987) (citations omitted). An employer’s unilateral
exercise of discretion in imposing serious discipline without

S. Lichtenberg, supra). For at least 10 years, the agency’s General
Counsels have expressly sought “to protect these new bargaining rela-
tionships, and therefore protect employee free choice.” See General
Counsel Memo GC 06-05 at 1 (Meisburg, April 19, 2006). See also
General Counsel Memo GC 07-08 at 1 (Meisburg, May 29, 2007)
(“[I]nitial contract bargaining constitutes a critical stage of the negotia-
tion process in that it provides the foundation for the parties’ future
labor-management relationship. Unfair labor practices by employers
and unions during this critical stage may have long-lasting, deleterious
effects on the parties’ collective bargaining and frustrate employees’
freely-exercised choice to unionize.”); id. at 2 (“Unilateral changes may
also force unions to bargain from a position of disadvantage, render the
unions powerless in the eyes of unit employees, and tend to erode em-
ployee support for the union at a time when the union has not had ade-
quate opportunity to establish a strong relationship with the represented
employees.”); General Counsel Memo GC 08-08 at 2 (Meisburg, May
15, 2008) (stating goal of “encouraging parties who are new to collec-
tive bargaining to approach these relationships with an openness and
commitment to the process of good faith collective bargaining.”); Gen-
eral Counsel Memo GC 14-03 at 2 (Griffin, April 30, 2014) (“Effective
enforcement of the Act requires that we protect employees’ right to
exercise their free choice regarding unionization, to participate in an
election free of coercion, and to have their elected representative nego-
tiate a first contract unencumbered by the impact of unfair labor prac-
tices.”).
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 11
first giving the union notice and an opportunity to bargain
would send employees the same signal as the imposition of
unilateral layoffs.
Recognition that discretion is inherent—in fact, un-
avoidable—in most kinds of discipline confirms that a
bargaining obligation attaches to the exercise of such
discretion. Granting merit increases, as in Katz, Oneita
Knitting, and subsequent cases, is also inherently discre-
tionary, as are many decisions regarding economic
layoffs.24 Nonetheless, we require bargaining over those
inherently discretionary decisions. The inevitability of
discretion in most decisions to discipline does not sup-
port treating it differently from other forms of unilateral
change; indeed, it makes bargaining over disciplinary
actions that much more critical.
E. Application to This Case
The stipulated record before us demonstrates that the
discharges at issue have all the characteristics of disci-
pline that requires pre-imposition bargaining pursuant to
our analysis above. It is undisputed that no such bargain-
ing occurred. Accordingly, we would typically apply the
above analysis and find that the Respondent violated
Section 8(a)(5) as alleged. Nevertheless, for reasons we
will explain, we have determined not to apply today’s
holding retroactively. As a result, we reverse the discre-
tionary discipline violations found by the judge and dis-
miss the corresponding allegations of the complaint.
1. The discharges at issue meet the test for discipline that
requires pre-imposition bargaining, but no such
bargaining occurred
The discharges of Jason Mack, Winston Jennings, and
Nequan Smith plainly had material, substantial, and sig-
nificant impacts on their terms and conditions of em-
ployment. In addition, as the Respondent has stipulated,
the discharges were discretionary and it imposed them
without notice to or bargaining with the Union, which
had been certified as the affected employees’ exclusive
representative. No collective-bargaining agreement or
other agreement addressing grievance processing regard-
ing the employees had been agreed to by the Respondent
and the Union. As further stipulated, at the time of the
discharges, the Respondent did not have a reasonable,
good-faith belief that any of the three employees’ contin-
ued presence at the job presented a serious, imminent
danger to the Respondent’s business or personnel or that
any of them engaged in unlawful conduct, posed a signif-
icant risk of exposing the Respondent to legal liability
for the employee’s conduct, or threatened safety, health,

24 See, e.g., Garment Workers Local 512 v. NLRB (Felbro, Inc.), 795
F.2d 705, 711 (9th Cir. 1986).
or security in or outside the workplace. Pursuant to our
analysis above, the discharges at issue are covered by the
obligation to bargain before imposition, an obligation
that the Respondent did not meet.
2. Retroactive application to the instant case
is inappropriate
“The Board’s usual practice is to apply all new policies
and standards to all pending cases in whatever stage.
The propriety of retroactive application, however, is de-
termined by balancing any ill effects of retroactivity
against the mischief of producing a result which is con-
trary to a statutory design or to legal and equitable prin-
ciples.” Levitz Furniture Co. of the Pacific, 333 NLRB
717, 729 (2001) (quotations omitted). Put differently, we
apply new rules and other changes prospectively where
retroactive application would cause “manifest injustice.”
SNE Enterprises, 344 NLRB 673, 673 (2005). As the
Board has explained,
In determining whether the retroactive application of a
Board decision will cause manifest injustice, the Board
will consider the reliance of the parties on preexisting
law, the effect of retroactivity on accomplishment of
the purposes of the Act, and any particular injustice
arising from retroactive application.
Id. (citations omitted); see also Allied Mechanical Services,
356 NLRB 2 (2010) (incorporating by reference 352 NLRB
662 (2008)), enfd. 668 F.3d 758 (D.C. Cir. 2012). Although
the issue here is a close one, we believe that the controlling
factors weigh against retroactive application.
The discharges at issue here took place after the
Board’s decision in Alan Ritchey25 had imposed the obli-
gation to bargain before imposing discipline in the cir-
cumstances that exist here, and it had overruled the prior
incorrect precedent set forth in Fresno Bee, supra. Yet
Alan Ritchey’s validity already was questionable in light
of the Federal court proceedings in Noel Canning, supra.
Shortly before the discharges, the District of Columbia
Circuit had issued a decision broadly invalidating the
appointments of two of the three Board members who
had participated in deciding Alan Ritchey. Noel Canning
v. NLRB, 705 F.3d 490 (D.C. Cir. 2013).26 And critical-

25 359 NLRB 396 (2012).
26 The Board generally applies a “nonacquiescence policy” to appel-
late court decisions that conflict with Board law and regards such ad-
verse rulings solely as the law of that particular case, unless the Board
precedent at issue is reversed by the Supreme Court. See D.L. Baker,
Inc., 351 NLRB 515, 529 at fn. 42 (2007); Manor West, Inc., 311
NLRB 655, 667 fn. 43 (1993), revd. 60 F.3d 1195 (6th Cir. 1995);
Arvin Industries, 285 NLRB 753, 757 (1987). For that reason, appel-
late court decisions generally do not control the Board’s resolution of
other, unrelated proceedings.
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD12
ly, as described above, the Supreme Court ultimately
ruled that the challenged Board members had not been
validly appointed, thus retroactively nullifying Alan
Ritchey on procedural grounds.
We need not agree with the Respondent’s argument
that it reasonably relied on Fresno Bee, rather than Alan
Ritchey, as the relevant precedent27 in order to recognize
the unusual circumstances surrounding this case. In light
of those circumstances, we find that applying the rule
adopted here (albeit first announced in Alan Ritchey) to
cases preceding today’s decision would create a particu-
lar injustice under the third prong of our test, and thus
such application would constitute manifest injustice.
We believe that today’s change in the law is well
grounded in Board doctrine and better serves the policies
of the Act. Retroactivity, however, is not essential to
achieving those benefits, and it will foreseeably impose
unexpected burdens on employers, in light of Noel Can-
ning’s outcome. For these reasons, we apply our holding
only prospectively.
F. Application to Future Cases
Because we apply today’s holding prospectively, we
will dismiss the complaint and order no remedy. But, in
the interest of administrative efficiency, we provide
guidance to Board personnel and labor practitioners, who
will apply this decision in the first instance in forthcom-
ing cases, about the appropriate remedies for unfair labor
practices arising under today’s decision.
If a respondent violates Section 8(a)(5) by failing to
provide notice to the union and an opportunity to bargain
before it imposes discretionary discipline, the Board’s
standard remedies for an unlawful unilateral change
should be granted.28 Thus, the remedy should not be
limited to a cease-and-desist order, an affirmative order
to bargain before changing employees’ terms and condi-
tions of employment by imposing discretionary disci-
pline,29 and notice-posting. Rather, make-whole relief

27 Nor does the stipulated record indicate what understanding of its
bargaining obligations the Respondent had or relied on when it dis-
charged the employees at issue.
28 Particularly egregious cases, or those involving recidivist respond-
ents, may warrant consideration of enhanced remedies, in accordance
with our usual remedial practices.
29 As explained above, an employer’s obligation to bargain before
implementing discretionary discipline does not require that the bargain-
ing continue to agreement or impasse; however, the employer’s duty to
continue bargaining after implementation does require full bargaining
to agreement or impasse. In a case alleging an unlawful failure to
bargain prior to implementation, the respondent employer, by defini-
tion, will have already imposed discipline or discharge unilaterally, and
our pragmatic reasons for allowing more limited pre-imposition bar-
gaining will no longer apply. Thus, the appropriate remedy will in-
clude the bargaining obligation that applies whenever discipline has
already been implemented: bargaining to agreement or impasse.
would also be appropriate, including reinstatement and
backpay, as explained below. A respondent may, how-
ever, raise an affirmative defense that the discipline was
“for cause” as that term is used in Section 10(c) of the
Act, and, therefore, that reinstatement and backpay may
not be awarded. We explain below what must be shown
to support such a defense.
1. General remedial principles at issue
Under well-established precedent,
the remedial aim of a Board order is “restoration of the
situation, as nearly as possible, to that which would
have obtained but for” the unfair labor practice. Phelps
Dodge Corp. v. NLRB, 313 U.S. 177, 194 (1941). Ac-
cordingly, when an employer violates Section 8(a)(5)
by changing its employees’ terms and conditions of
employment without affording their bargaining repre-
sentative an opportunity to bargain, the standard af-
firmative remedy is to order the employer to rescind its
unlawful unilateral changes on the union’s request . . . .
See Goya Foods of Florida, 356 NLRB 1461, 1462
(2011) (standard affirmative remedy for unlawful uni-
lateral changes to the terms and conditions of employ-
ment is immediate rescission of changes and return to
status quo ante).
UPS Supply Chain Solutions, Inc., 364 NLRB No. 8, slip
op. at 1 (2016). See also Southwest Forest Industries, 278
NLRB 228, 228 (1986) (“It is well established that a make-
whole order restoring the status quo ante is the normal rem-
edy when an employer has made unlawful unilateral chang-
es in its employees’ terms and conditions of employment.”)
(citing cases), enfd. 841 F.2d 270 (9th Cir. 1988); Beacon
Piece Dyeing and Finishing Co., 121 NLRB 953, 963
(1958). The unilateral changes that give rise to violations
under today’s decision—that is, the imposition of discipli-
nary actions such as suspension, demotion, and discharge—
would typically result in loss of pay or employment status,
necessitating backpay and reinstatement to make affected
employees whole. Goya Foods, supra (“the Board’s stand-
ard remedy in Section 8(a)(5) cases involving unilateral
changes resulting in losses to employees is to make whole
any employee affected by the change”), quoting Grand
Rapids Press, 325 NLRB 915, 916 (1998), enfd. mem. 208
F.3d 214 (6th Cir. 2000).30 The Supreme Court has long

30 Consistent with our precedent, a respondent may seek to show that
make-whole remedies are inappropriate in a particular case. See also
Consec Security, 328 NLRB 1201, 1201 (1999) (explaining that, at the
compliance stage, employer can raise defenses to reinstatement and
backpay remedy for employees’ discharge in violation of Sec. 8(a)(5));
Randolph Children’s Home, 309 NLRB 341, 341 (1992) (ordering
reinstatement and backpay to remedy employee’s discharge under a
unilaterally revised rule, but allowing employer an opportunity “to
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 13
endorsed the Board’s use of make-whole remedies. NLRB
v. Strong, 393 U.S. 357, 359 (1969) (quoting Phelps Dodge
Corp. v. NLRB, 313 U.S. 177, 197 (1941)) (“[M]aking the
workers whole for losses suffered on account of an unfair
labor practice is part of the vindication of the public policy
which the Board enforces.”).
In some cases, it may happen that a respondent that un-
lawfully fails to provide pre-discipline notice and an op-
portunity to bargain, under the analysis we adopt today,
complies with its obligation to bargain to agreement or
impasse after it has imposed discipline. Such compli-
ance with the post-discipline bargaining obligation does
not moot or cure the pre-discipline bargaining violation,
but it may affect the scope of remedial relief. Thus,
when parties have bargained to agreement after the disci-
pline,31 an order providing for backpay, running from the
date of the unilateral discipline until the date on which
the parties reached agreement, would generally be ap-
propriate to the extent that the parties’ agreement does
not provide such backpay.32 This assumes that the par-
ties’ agreement does not purport to settle the pre-
discipline bargaining violation; if it does purport to do
so, that aspect of the agreement, if challenged, will be
subject to analysis under the Board’s standard for re-
viewing non-Board settlement agreements set forth in
Independent Stave Co., 287 NLRB 740 (1987).
In cases in which the respondent failed to provide no-
tice and an opportunity to bargain before imposing disci-
pline but the parties have bargained in good faith to im-
passe after the discipline, backpay will be ordered for the
pre-discipline bargaining violation. Backpay in such a
case would normally run from the date of the discipline
until the date on which the parties reached impasse.33

avoid its remedial obligation to [employee] by demonstrating that it
would have discharged him even absent his violation of the unilaterally
promulgated rule”). As explained below, we will adhere to the compli-
ance process when presented with the argument that reinstatement and
backpay are inappropriate because a discipline was assertedly “for
cause.”
31 As a practical matter, it may be less likely that an unfair labor
practice charge will be filed when the parties have reached an agree-
ment.
32 See, e.g., Essex Valley Visiting Nurses Association, 343 NLRB
817, 821 (2004) (limiting backpay for unilateral change to the date the
parties reached an agreement permitting the change). In most such
cases, the employer’s backpay responsibility would likely be minimal.
33 Because the employer may impose the discretionary discipline af-
ter the parties have reached impasse, ordering a reinstatement or rescis-
sion remedy would appear to be impractical in most circumstances
where the parties are at impasse.
We do not rule out the possibility that the backpay period may be
shortened by the application of standard compliance principles. See,
e.g., Hawaii Tribune Herald, 356 NLRB 661 (2011) (clarifying stand-
ard under which Board will assess whether employee’s post-discharge
misconduct bars reinstatement or tolls backpay), enfd. sub nom. Ste-
phens Media, LLC v. NLRB, 677 F.3d 1241 (D.C. Cir. 2012). In addi-
2. Section 10(c) of the Act
We reject the argument that the remedial limitation
found in Section 10(c) of the Act necessarily precludes
make-whole relief in all cases arising under today’s deci-
sion. Rather, its application will turn on the specific
facts of each case. The limitation at issue in Section
10(c) consists of a single sentence, stating: “No order of
the Board shall require the reinstatement of any
individual as an employee who has been suspended or
discharged, or the payment to him of any backpay, if
such individual was suspended or discharged for
cause.”34 Despite the facial breadth of that language, the
Supreme Court has expressly rejected the argument that
the “for cause” provision bars a full remedy for layoffs

tion, normal principles regarding mitigation of damages would apply to
calculations of the backpay due to discharged employees.
34 That provision, which was added in 1947, appears in the midst of
Sec. 10(c)’s grant of broad authority to the Board to determine whether
violations of the Act have occurred and to order action that will remedy
those violations. It is not explained or clarified by nearby statutory
language, and its legislative history indicates that it was intended to
address Sec. 8(a)(3) violations turning on employer motivation. See
NLRB v. Transportation Management Corp., 462 U.S. 393, 401 fn. 3
(1983) (citing the legislative history and observing that the provision’s
insertion “was sparked by a concern over the Board’s perceived prac-
tice of inferring from the fact that someone was active in a union that
he was fired because of anti-union animus even though the worker had
been guilty of gross misconduct. . . . The provision was thus a reaction
to the Board’s readiness to infer anti-union animus from the fact that
the discharged person was active in the union . . . .”). The Board has
applied Sec. 10(c)’s limitation on make-whole relief in certain cases
arising under Sec. 8(a)(5), and we do not decide today whether the
Board erred in doing so.
To be clear, Sec. 10(c) is a limitation on the Board’s remedial au-
thority once it has found an unfair labor practice, and the only remedies
it addresses are reinstatement and backpay. Neither the text of Sec.
10(c) nor its legislative or interpretive history places any limit on
whether the Board may find an unfair labor practice in the first in-
stance, when the General Counsel has proved the elements of the viola-
tion, or on whether the Board may order remedies other than reinstate-
ment and backpay when it finds such an unfair labor practice.
We are unpersuaded by the dissent’s contrary belief that Sec. 10(c)
applies also to the initial finding of an unfair labor practice and that no
violation can be found, in any case involving suspension or discharge,
unless the General Counsel demonstrates the absence of cause. We
note, initially, that the expressly remedial language of the 10(c) provi-
sion at issue defeats the argument that Sec. 10(c) limits the Board’s
authority to find a violation. Further, in a somewhat different context,
the Board has already rejected the dissent’s “novel theory”—repeated
nearly verbatim today—that cause is a factor in assessing liability and
therefore its absence must be shown by the General Counsel. See
Babcock & Wilcox Construction Co., 361 NLRB No. 132, slip op. at 8–
9 (2014) (“‘Section 10(c) places the burden on the General Counsel
only to prove the unfair labor practice, not to disprove an affirmative
defense.’ [NLRB v. Transportation Management, 462 U.S.] at 401 fn.
6. Thus, the Court implicitly rejected our colleague’s contention that
Congress meant to require the General Counsel to prove that the em-
ployer’s action was not for ‘cause.’”) We continue to find the dissent’s
effort to reinterpret Transportation Management unpersuasive, and we
reaffirm the Board’s prior rejection of the argument.
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD14
that “stem[] directly from a refusal to bargain.” Fibre-
board Paper Products Corp. v. NLRB, 379 U.S. 203, 217
(1964).35
The Board has applied the Section 10(c) remedial limi-
tation in only a handful of cases, and we find, contrary to
the dissent, that none of those cases bars the award of
make-whole relief for an employer’s failure to bargain
prior to imposing discretionary discipline. First, we are
unpersuaded that make-whole relief in this context is
precluded by Taracorp Industries, 273 NLRB 221
(1984), which addressed the types of remedies appropri-
ate for a violation of an employee’s right, under NLRB v.
J. Weingarten, Inc., 420 U.S. 251 (1975), to have a union
representative present at an investigatory interview that
may result in discipline. In Taracorp, the Board inter-
preted Section 10(c) to mean that an employee dis-
charged or disciplined for misconduct is not entitled to
reinstatement and backpay “even though the employee’s
Section 7 rights may have been violated by the employer
in a context unrelated to the discharge or discipline.”
Taracorp, 273 NLRB at 222. The Board explained that
“there simply is not a sufficient nexus between the unfair
labor practice committed (denial of representation at an
investigatory interview) and the reason for the discharge
(perceived misconduct) to justify a make-whole remedy.”
By contrast, in cases arising under today’s decision, the
unfair labor practice is the unilateral imposition of disci-
pline that was imposed directly in response to the per-
ceived misconduct, creating a much stronger nexus be-
tween the unfair labor practice at issue and the reason for
the discipline.36 Simply put, unlike in Taracorp, the un-
fair labor practice (an employer’s failure to bargain prior
to imposing discretionary discipline) is not “unrelated to”
the discipline. Further, as we have explained above,

35 It is noteworthy that the dissent discusses at length the question of
the existence of “cause” (essentially equivalent to misconduct) but
gives scant attention to the necessity of determining whether the disci-
pline was “for cause.” Assuming that an employee who was disci-
plined after engaging in misconduct was disciplined because of the
misconduct is a common logical fallacy. Further, if the existence of
cause alone were adequate to support a finding that subsequent disci-
pline was “for cause,” the Board would have had no need to consider
the “causal nexus” in cases addressing Sec. 10(c), as it did in the cases
discussed immediately below.
36 We recently held that, notwithstanding Taracorp, make-whole re-
lief was warranted when an employee was discharged for his conduct
during an investigatory interview that was held without union represen-
tation in violation of Weingarten. E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., 362
NLRB No. 98 (2015). In such a case, the causal nexus between the
employer’s unfair labor practice and the misconduct for which the
employee was discharged was clear, and the employer’s violation was
not “incidental to” the discipline or discharge. Id., slip op. at 4 (citing
NLRB v. Potter Electric Signal Co., 600 F.2d 120 (8th Cir. 1979) and
Montgomery Ward & Co. v. NLRB, 664 F.2d 1095 (8th Cir. 1981)).
Thus, Taracorp was “fundamentally distinguishable.” Id.
8(a)(1) violations under Weingarten raise issues that are
materially different from those arising from the 8(a)(5)
violations we address in this decision.
In Anheuser-Busch, Inc.,37 the Board considered the
relevance of Section 10(c) in a case involving a unilateral
change in violation of Section 8(a)(5). The employer
unilaterally installed and operated surveillance cameras,
which revealed evidence of employee misconduct and
criminal activity at the worksite, including sleeping on
duty, urinating off of the facility’s roof, and illegal drug
use. Relying on Taracorp’s “insufficient nexus” analy-
sis, the Board majority found that the employees who
had been disciplined for that conduct, based on evidence
obtained from the unlawfully installed cameras, were not
entitled to make-whole relief.38 Even accepting An-
heuser-Busch’s application of Section 10(c)’s limitation
to unilateral-change cases, we find a substantially strong-
er causal nexus here than in Anheuser-Busch. There, the
unfair labor practice was the failure to negotiate about
the video cameras; the unlawfully installed cameras were
merely the tool by which subsequent misconduct was
discovered. Anheuser-Busch, 351 NLRB at 646. Thus,
the unfair labor practice in Anheuser-Busch was separate
from the disciplinary actions both in time and in the
chain of causation. Here, in contrast, the unfair labor
practice is chronologically and causally inseparable from
the discipline: the employer’s unlawful failure to bargain
over the imposition of discipline is itself what makes the
discipline unlawful.39 The Anheuser-Busch majority
expressly distinguished the case before it from the kind
of case at issue here, confirming that “a termination of
employment that is accomplished without bargaining
with the representative union is unlawful under Section

37 351 NLRB 644 (2007), review denied sub nom. Brewers and
Maltsters Local 6 v. NLRB, 303 Fed. Appx. 899 (D.C. Cir. 2008).
38 The complaint in Anheuser-Busch alleged that the employer failed
to bargain over the installation and use of the surveillance cameras, a
violation that the Board found. There was no separate allegation that
the employer violated Sec. 8(a)(5) by failing to bargain over the dis-
charges (for conduct captured on the surveillance cameras) before
implementing them.
39 This case differs from Anheuser-Busch in a further respect. There,
the majority perceived that the severity of the employees’ misconduct
would lead other employees to expect serious disciplinary action and
thus not to fault the union for the consequences imposed on the em-
ployees. Anheuser-Busch, 351 NLRB at 649 fn. 19. Cases arising
under today’s decision will undoubtedly involve disciplinary action for
a wide range of alleged misconduct, but we anticipate that cases of
egregious or criminal misconduct will be the exception, rather than the
rule. We note, as well, that extreme cases would likely be covered by
the exigent-circumstances exception to pre-imposition bargaining. In
any event, we have already explained that, especially where a union is
newly certified and employees reasonably expect its presence to effect
a change in their employer’s ability to act unilaterally, the union’s
perceived stature and ability to effectively represent employees would
be undermined by the employer’s unilateral action.
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 15
8(a)(5) and is not ‘for cause.’” 351 NLRB at 648 (citing
Fibreboard Papers Products Corp. v. NLRB, supra).
The causal nexus here is more akin to the nexus that
exists in cases in which an unlawful unilateral change in
a work rule is a factor in an employee’s discipline. In
those cases, the Board routinely orders make-whole re-
lief. Alta Vista Regional Hospital, 357 NLRB 326
(2011) (incorporating 355 NLRB 265, 267, 268 (2010)),
enfd. 697 F.3d 1181 (D.C. Cir. 2012); Flambeau Airmold
Corp., 334 NLRB 165, 167 (2001); Great Western Pro-
duce, 299 NLRB 1004, 1005 (1990), overruled on other
grounds by Anheuser-Busch, supra.40 See also Uniserv,
351 NLRB 1361, 1361 fn. 1 (2007) (employees dis-
charged under unilaterally imposed stricter drug policy
were entitled to full remedy; in contrast, employees dis-
charged solely as result of unilateral increase in behav-
ioral “triggers” that would lead to drug test could be de-
nied full remedy if employer showed in compliance that
they would have been discharged even if it had bargained
over triggers).
As we have explained, Section 10(c) does not bar rein-
statement or backpay in all cases; however, a respondent
may raise an affirmative defense that reinstatement and
backpay may not be awarded because the discipline was
“for cause” within the meaning of Section 10(c), to be
considered in light of the facts of the particular case. In
that context, we will construe Section 10(c) to preclude
reinstatement and backpay if the respondent establishes,
consistent with the allocation of proof described below,
that the employee’s suspension or discharge was for
cause. In order to do so, the respondent must show that:
(1) the employee engaged in misconduct, and (2) the
misconduct was the reason for the suspension or dis-
charge. In response, the General Counsel and the charg-
ing party may contest the respondent’s showing, and may
also seek to show, for example, that there are mitigating
circumstances or that the respondent has not imposed

40 In Essex Valley Visiting Nurses Assn., 343 NLRB 817, 819 (2004),
the Board majority suggested that a discharge should result “solely”
from a unilateral change in order to be treated as a violation of Sec.
8(a)(5). The majority did not purport to change established precedent;
rather, it cited Boland Marine & Manufacturing Co., 225 NLRB 824,
825 (1976), enfd. 562 F.2d 1259 (5th Cir. 1977), which stated that a
discharge is unlawful if it is “solely” the result of the unilateral change.
The Essex Valley majority, however, acknowledged that Boland is in
tension with Great Western Produce, supra, which applied the principle
that a discharge is unlawful if a unilateral change was a “factor” in the
discharge. Although Great Western Produce cited Boland, it did not
address Boland’s narrower standard. The Essex Valley majority ulti-
mately found the discharges lawful without relying on Boland’s lan-
guage, and we do not view Essex Valley as having unequivocally
adopted a standard requiring that a discipline or discharge be “solely”
the result of a unilateral change to violate Sec. 8(a)(5). To the extent
that Essex Valley and Boland can be read to suggest that that standard
applies, however, they are outliers and we overrule them.
similar discipline on other employees for similar mis-
conduct. If the General Counsel and charging party
make such a showing, the respondent must show that it
would nevertheless have imposed the same discipline.
We emphasize that the respondent retains the burden of
persuasion in this analytical framework.41 The remedial
guidance we provide today will be further developed in
the course of future decisions applying the analysis we
are adopting.
G. Conclusion
Having addressed, as needed, the dissent’s numerous
objections to today’s decision, we conclude with some
general observations about our decision and the dissent.
In particular, we note that the dissent’s overall approach
disregards the fact that the case we address today is one
in which employees have newly chosen to be represented
by a union.42 The dissent’s blinders on this point create
problems of both law and policy. First, as a matter of
law, the dissent appears to reject the fundamental legal
fact that an employer’s obligations change when its em-
ployees choose to be represented. The dissent would
seemingly allow an employer to continue as if no change
had occurred, permitting an employer with a pre-union

41 Placing the burden of establishing the Sec. 10(c) defense on the
respondent is consistent with our standard compliance procedures,
which similarly impose the burden of proof on the party contending
that an employee should be denied reinstatement or that the employee’s
backpay should be reduced or denied. This allocation of the burden is
also consistent with the Board’s established principle that the wrong-
doer bears the burden of uncertainty created by its wrongful conduct.
See, e.g., Basin Frozen Foods, 320 NLRB 1072, 1074 (1996) (“Once
the General Counsel has shown the gross backpay due in the specifica-
tion, the employer bears the burden of establishing affirmative defenses
which would mitigate its liability, including willful loss of earnings and
interim earnings to be deducted from any backpay award. La Favorita,
Inc., [313 NLRB 902 (1994), enfd. 48 F.3d 1232 (10th Cir. 1995)];
NLRB v. Brown & Root, 311 F.2d 447, 454 (8th Cir. 1963). Any uncer-
tainties or ambiguities should be resolved in favor of the wronged party
rather than the wrongdoer. United Aircraft Corp., 204 NLRB 1068,
1069 (1973).”); see also Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers v.
NLRB, 426 F.2d 1243, 1251 (D.C. Cir. 1970) (“The most elementary
conceptions of justice and public policy require that the wrongdoer
shall bear the risk of the uncertainty which his own wrong has creat-
ed.”); Wellstream Corp., 321 NLRB 455, 461 (1996). Lastly, our allo-
cation of the burden is also consistent with ordinary evidentiary princi-
ples that take into account which party has better access to the infor-
mation that would prove or disprove an argument. The respondent is
the party that would have investigated the misconduct that it asserts as a
defense to reinstatement and backpay, and it is the party that made the
disciplinary decision; thus, the respondent is far better situated to prove
that misconduct occurred and was the reason for the discipline than is
any other party to prove the reverse.
42 The dissent contends that today’s decision is not limited to first-
contract bargaining situations, but will apply at any time that no agree-
ment governing discipline is in place. The case before us, however,
involves a first-contract bargaining situation, and that is all that we are
deciding here.
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD16
practice of acting unilaterally—as almost inevitably will
be the case—to continue doing so. But it should be self-
evident that under a Federal statute intended to promote
collective bargaining, the employees’ choice of an exclu-
sive representative requires an employer to bargain over
issues that it has not previously been required to bargain
over, and an existing discretionary practice of changing
employees’ terms and conditions of employment without
bargaining may not continue unaltered after the statutory
duty to bargain has attached.43 Second, as a matter of
policy, an employer’s unilateral changes during first-
contract bargaining have a demonstrable tendency to
impede the bargaining process and undermine the un-
ion’s stature in the eyes of the employees it represents.44
As the dissent recognizes, contract bargaining is difficult,
and first-contract bargaining even more so.45 We would
let the parties do that hard work without a plethora of
unilateral changes undermining employees’ newly se-
lected bargaining representatives.
In addition, the dissent expounds, at great length and
with great concern, about the uncertainty that will be
created by today’s decision. Of course, we do not dis-
pute that we are changing the law—that is why we apply
this decision prospectively—but, as we have explained,
the changes are far more limited than the dissent por-
trays. Similarly, the uncertainty that may result is certain
to be far more limited than the dissent contends.46 As is
typical after changes in the law, the cases to be decided
will present widely varying fact situations raising un-
anticipated questions. But our expectation is that the
guidelines set forth here will provide the framework in
which the details of cases can be addressed, resulting in
greater predictability over time.47 Contrary to the dis-

43 See Adair Standish Corp., 292 NLRB 890, 890 fn. 1 (1989), enfd.
in relevant part 912 F.2d 854 (6th Cir. 1990); Oneita Knitting Mills,
205 NLRB 500, 500 (1973).
44 See note 23, supra.
45 See Lee Lumber & Building Material Corp., 334 NLRB 399, 403
(2001).
46 Contrary to the dissent’s lamentations about this decision’s sup-
posed unworkability, we are more confident not only that employers
and unions can figure out the process, but also that they and the em-
ployees they employ or represent may be better off as a result, as a
recent case illustrates. In Cellco Partnership d/b/a Verizon Wireless,
29–CA–158754, JD(NY)–27–16 (judge’s decision, August 1, 2016),
the employer and union agreed to hold an “Alan Ritchey meeting”
before the intended termination of an employee. One employee’s Alan
Ritchey meeting resulted in the reduction of her planned discharge to a
final warning, expressly because of information that came to light in
that meeting; the other Alan Ritchey meeting described did not avert the
employee’s termination. No 8(a)(5) violation was alleged as to either
discipline or discharge; the only violations alleged involved ordinary
8(a)(1) and (3) discrimination.
47 The Supreme Court has recognized that in adopting new legal
rules, the Board need not immediately resolve every question that
might conceivably arise:
sent’s claim, we do not disregard the lack of certainty
that will exist in some forthcoming cases applying to-
day’s decision. But that temporary lack of certainty is a
normal result of legal development—indeed, it is inher-
ent in the process of legal development—and, as the Su-
preme Court stated in Eastex, entirely appropriate. As
we have seen in other cases,48 when faced with the ques-
tion of whether employees have—or have the opportuni-
ty to exercise—certain rights under the Act, the dissent
opts for the simplicity of “no” over the more difficult
task of grappling with the nuances of “yes, but . . . .”
Yet, to reflexively sacrifice employees’ Section 7 rights
in the interest of avoiding complexity would amount to
abdication of our duty under the Act. Our answer may
not be the easy one, but the Board’s responsibility to
“adapt the Act to the changing patterns of industrial
life”49 precludes us from permanently freezing in place a
deficient understanding of the Act.
ORDER
The complaint is dismissed.
Dated, Washington, D.C. August 26, 2016
______________________________________
Mark Gaston Pearce, Chairman
______________________________________
Kent Y. Hirozawa, Member

This is a new area for the Board and the courts which has not yet re-
ceived mature consideration. It may be that the ‘nature of the prob-
lem, as revealed by unfolding variant situations,’ requires ‘an evolu-
tionary process for its rational response, not a quick, definitive formula
as a comprehensive answer.’ Local 761, Electrical Workers v. NLRB,
366 U.S. 667, 674, 81 S.Ct. 1285, 1290, 6 L.Ed.2d 592 (1961). For
this reason, we confine our holding to the facts of this case.
Eastex, Inc. v. NLRB, 437 U.S. 556, 574–575 (1978). See also NLRB v. J.
Weingarten, Inc., 420 U.S. at 265–266 (“The use by an administrative agen-
cy of the evolutional approach is particularly fitting. To hold that the
Board’s earlier decisions froze the development of this important aspect of
the national labor law would misconceive the nature of administrative
decisionmaking”); Iron Workers, 434 U.S. 335, 351 (1978).
48 See, e.g., Miller & Anderson, Inc., 364 NLRB No. 39 (2016)
(Member Miscimarra, dissenting) (bargaining units including both
jointly employed and solely employed employees of same user em-
ployer); BFI Newby Island Recyclery, 362 NLRB No. 186 (2015)
(Members Miscimarra and Johnson, dissenting) (test for joint employer
status); Purple Communications, Inc., 361 NLRB No. 126 (2014)
(Member Miscimarra, dissenting) (employees’ Sec. 7 rights to use
employer email).
49 Hudgens v. NLRB, 424 U.S. 507, 523 (1976) (citing NLRB v. J.
Weingarten, Inc., 420 U.S. 251, 266 (1975)).
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 17
______________________________________
Lauren McFerran, Member
(SEAL) NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD
MEMBER MISCIMARRA, concurring in part and dissenting in
part.
I disagree with my colleagues’ decision in this case,
which creates entirely new requirements and restrictions
regarding discipline. These new requirements include a
Board-imposed moratorium on discipline whenever em-
ployees are represented—which I refer to as a “discipline
bar”—and my colleagues invent a new type of “disci-
pline bargaining” governed by complicated rules, quali-
fications and exceptions.1 There is no legal support for
these requirements, with the sole exception of one short-
lived decision, Alan Ritchey, Inc., 359 NLRB 396
(2012), which set forth, nearly verbatim, the same ra-
tionale my colleagues rely on here, and which the Su-
preme Court invalidated (for reasons unrelated to the
merits) in NLRB v. Noel Canning, 134 S.Ct. 2550
(2014).2
Most troubling and disappointing is the fact that so
many fundamental labor law principles—all well-
established—are being cast aside by my colleagues. The
new obligations take a wrecking ball to eight decades of
NLRA case law. My problems with the new discipline
bar and discipline bargaining requirements do not stem
from their novelty. Rather, these new obligations cannot

1 My colleagues do not use the terms discipline bar or discipline
bargaining, but the use of these terms is necessary to avoid confusion
about the specialized requirements created by my colleagues in today’s
decision. “Discipline bar” describes the new Board-imposed moratori-
um on discipline, which exists whenever employees are represented by
a union (and the employer and union have not entered into an agree-
ment regarding discipline), unless and until the employer has provided
the union an opportunity for “discipline bargaining,” including ex-
changes of information requests and responses to those requests.
My colleagues have also created new and unusual standards regard-
ing discipline bargaining, including complex qualifications and excep-
tions, so I use the term discipline bargaining to avoid confusion with
the more familiar terms decision bargaining and effects bargaining,
which are governed by very different principles. See, e.g., First Na-
tional Maintenance Corp. v. NLRB, 452 U.S. 666, 674–688 (1981)
(generally describing decision bargaining and effects bargaining); IMI
South, LLC d/b/a Irving Materials, 364 NLRB No. 97 (2016) (same);
Columbia College Chicago, 363 NLRB No. 154, slip op. at 7–10
(2016) (Member Miscimarra, dissenting) (describing effects bargain-
ing).
2 The Board’s decision in Alan Ritchey was issued by three mem-
bers, two of whom held recess appointments determined to be unconsti-
tutional in the Supreme Court’s Noel Canning decision. This rendered
Alan Ritchey invalid under Sec. 3(b) of the Act.
be squared with existing legal principles. Indeed, they
are contradicted by the Board’s own representations to
the Supreme Court in NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc.,3
where the Board clearly indicated that employers and
unions have no obligation to engage in bargaining before
imposing discipline.4
My colleagues resolve these contradictions by over-
hauling a broad range of existing principles as they per-
tain to a single subject: discipline imposed on represent-
ed employees. My colleagues grossly understate the
extent to which their new requirements are contrary to
existing law. These new requirements upend existing
principles governing conventional decision and effects
bargaining, they require bargaining over actions that ef-
fect no change in the manner in which the employer has
disciplined employees in the past, they contradict exist-
ing law that disfavors single-issue negotiations, and they
disregard the Board’s longstanding position regarding the
waiver of collective-bargaining rights. I also believe
these new requirements are precluded by express provi-
sions in the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA or
Act)—specifically, Section 8(d), which prohibits the
Board from imposing substantive terms on parties under
the guise of enforcing Section 8(a)(5) bargaining re-
quirements, and Section 10(c), which prohibits the Board
from ordering backpay or reinstatement for any employ-
ee who was suspended or discharged for “cause,” with
the General Counsel bearing the burden of proving the
absence of “cause”—and by Supreme Court decisions
limiting the Board to “remedial” relief. The Supreme
Court may very well have anticipated the instant case
when it stated, in Republic Steel Corp. v. NLRB,5 that
Congress never intended to give the Board “virtually
unlimited discretion” to impose “punitive measures,”
“penalties” or “fines” based on what “the Board may
think would effectuate the policies of the Act.”6
I am not a champion of an employer’s right to impose
discipline on employees, and I do not seek to minimize
the role played by unions in relation to discipline. My
concern here is that these new requirements are not faith-
ful to existing legal principles, and I believe they dis-
regard important constraints that our statute places on the
Board. However, it is also relevant to point out that rep-
resented employees and unions have substantial protec-
tion in discipline cases, as reflected in Section 8(a)(1)
(which prohibits discipline motivated by hostility to-

3 420 U.S. 251 (1975).
4 See text accompanying fns. 95–100, infra.
5 311 U.S. 7 (1940).
6 Id. at 11; see also Consolidated Edison Co. v. NLRB, 305 U.S. 197,
235–236 (1938); NLRB v. Pennsylvania Greyhound Lines, 303 U.S.
261, 267–268 (1938).
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD18
wards protected concerted activities); Section 8(a)(3)
(which prohibits discipline motivated by antiunion dis-
crimination); Section 8(a)(5) (which makes disciplinary
standards and procedures a mandatory subject of bargain-
ing whenever bargaining is requested by the union, and
which prohibits any unilateral “change” in disciplinary
standards and procedures); the Weingarten right to re-
quest the presence of a union representative whenever an
employee reasonably believes an investigative meeting
may result in discipline;7 and potential collective-
bargaining agreement (CBA) provisions regarding disci-
pline, grievances, and arbitration. It is noteworthy that
the requirements announced by my colleagues substan-
tially exceed what parties have typically included in their
own CBAs, which rarely, if ever, require bargaining over
discipline before it is imposed, and they nearly always
treat discipline as a management prerogative, subject to
the existence of “cause,” and the union’s right to pursue
post-discipline challenges in grievance arbitration.8
How does one explain everybody’s failure to realize,
until now, that the NLRA imposes an obligation to have
bargaining between employers and unions regarding eve-
ry decision to impose discipline on represented employ-
ees? Employee discipline is hardly a new development
in our statute’s 80-year history.9 In my view, it is not
plausible to believe these new requirements have support
in our statute but somehow escaped the attention of Con-
gress, the Supreme Court, other courts, and previous
Boards for the past 80 years.
Accordingly, as explained more fully below, I respect-
fully dissent from my colleagues’ adoption of these new
requirements and from the remedial principles they an-
nounce for application in future cases, and I concur with
my colleagues’ decision not to apply these new require-
ments retroactively in the instant case.
DISCUSSION
A. The Discipline Bar and Discipline Bargaining
Requirements, Generally
Based on today’s decision, an employer may not law-
fully discipline represented employees based on preexist-
ing disciplinary standards and procedures, even if the
employer makes no changes in those standards and pro-
cedures, even if the employer has always imposed the
same discipline in similar circumstances, and even if the
employer does not discriminate on the basis of union
membership or other protected activity when it imposes

7 Weingarten, 420 U.S. at 251.
8 See discussion in fns. 20 and 46, infra and accompanying text.
9 See Sec. 10(c) (stating that the Board may not award reinstatement
or backpay to any individual whose suspension or discharge resulted
from “cause”).
discipline. Thus, my colleagues create a discipline bar,
which prohibits discipline for an open-ended period until
the employer gives the union the opportunity to engage
in a new, specialized type of discipline bargaining.
In general terms, discipline bargaining requires the
suspension or deferral of discipline decisions until the
employer has provided notice to the union and an oppor-
tunity for bargaining, including exchanges of information
requests and responses to those requests. This summary
merely scratches the surface, however. These new obli-
gations are subject to an array of complex exceptions and
qualifications that make matters worse by requiring par-
ties to meticulously evaluate all aspects of every discipli-
nary decision, and nobody can possibly know when dis-
ciplinary actions can be taken. Only one thing is certain:
nearly everyone is likely to disagree over what may or
must be done and when, and in far too many cases, this
process will end only with the conclusion of Board and
court litigation that will take years to complete.
B. Existing Legal Principles Are Irreconcilable with the
New Requirements
The majority’s decision runs roughshod over existing
principles involving many of the most fundamental prin-
ciples embodied in the Act:
 Discipline Is Unlawful Even Though No
“Change” Has Occurred. The Board and the
courts have long held that an employer vio-
lates the Act if it unilaterally decides to
change employment terms. However, a
change does not occur, and bargaining is not
required, if the employer’s actions are similar
in kind and degree to its past actions.10 These
principles are completely upended by today’s
decision. As noted previously, solely in rela-
tion to discipline, the Board will now require
bargaining when there concededly has been
no change from the handling of similar disci-
plinary matters in the past.
 Discipline Is Unlawful Even Though Nondis-
criminatory. Today’s decision invalidates
nondiscriminatory discipline decisions unless
the employer satisfies the majority’s newly
created requirements. Discipline will be
deemed unlawful even though the employer’s
actions are consistent with what the employer
has done in the past, and even though the em-

10 See, e.g., NLRB v. Katz, 369 U.S. 736 (1962) (wage increases);
Westinghouse Electric Corp. (Mansfield Plant), 150 NLRB 1574,
1576–1577 (1965) (subcontracting decisions); Arc Bridges, Inc., 355
NLRB 1222 (2010), enf. denied 662 F.3d 1235 (D.C. Cir. 2011) (wage
increases).
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 19
ployer’s motives have nothing to do with the
disciplined employee’s union support or other
protected activities.
 Discipline Bargaining Is a One-Sided Obliga-
tion Because Employers Cannot Deviate
From Existing Disciplinary Rules and Proce-
dures. My colleagues have formulated these
new disciplinary requirements as a “heads-I-
win, tails-you-lose” obligation, where em-
ployers violate the Act if they fail to honor
the discipline bar—a moratorium on disci-
pline—or fail to engage in pre-
implementation discipline bargaining. How-
ever, employers also violate the Act if they
deviate from any preexisting disciplinary
rules and procedures.
 Single-Issue Discipline Bargaining Contra-
dicts the Board’s “Overall Impasse” Doc-
trine. The Board and the courts have long
held that parties are prohibited from making
changes absent an “overall impasse” in bar-
gaining regarding all mandatory subjects.11
However, my colleagues require single-issue
bargaining over discipline decisions (and over
the implementation of the decision following
the completion of single-issue discipline bar-
gaining) when parties have not reached an
“overall impasse,” and indeed, where the par-
ties remain actively engaged in other disci-
pline-related bargaining.
 Discipline Bar and Discipline Bargaining
NOT Limited to Initial Contract Negotiations.
The Board’s newly created discipline-bar and
discipline-bargaining requirements exist
across the board at all times when the em-
ployer and union do not have an agreement
governing discipline in place, not merely
while initial contract negotiations remain in-
complete.12

11 RBE Electronics of S.D., 320 NLRB 80 (1995); Bottom Line En-
terprises, 302 NLRB 373, 374 (1991), enfd. mem. 15 F.3d 1087 (9th
Cir. 1994). Under RBE Electronics and Bottom Line, the requirement
of bargaining to an overall impasse is subject to certain exceptions,
none of which apply here. See also fn. 39 infra.
12 My colleagues do not disclaim the application of these new disci-
pline-bargaining obligations at all times, and merely state that the “case
before us . . . involves a first-contract bargaining situation, and that is
all that we are deciding here.” Majority opinion, slip op. at 15 fn. 42.
As noted in the text, however, the majority defines the obligation to
bargain over discipline as an obligation to bargain over all aspects of
discipline that involve “discretion.” Existing Board law establishes that
the Board will require employers and unions to satisfy all bargaining
obligations in such cases except in circumstances when there is a “clear
and unmistakable waiver.” See fn. 13, infra.
 Repudiating “Waiver” Principles. My col-
leagues announce a “safe harbor” where, os-
tensibly, employers have no “duty to bargain
before imposing discipline” if the employer
and union have entered into “an interim
agreement” that, in addition to waiving the
union’s right to pre-imposition bargaining,
provides for “some mutually satisfactory al-
ternative, such as a grievance procedure that
would permit the employer to act first fol-
lowed by a grievance and, potentially, arbitra-
tion, as is typical in most complete collective
bargaining agreements.” This bears little re-
semblance to the “clear and unmistakable
waiver” the Board requires in other contexts
where contract provisions might obviate the
need for bargaining.13
 Repudiating Decision- and Effects-
Bargaining Principles. The Board and the
courts have long held that, in conventional
bargaining, decision bargaining is required
before an employer makes the relevant deci-
sion, and effects bargaining (addressing the
impact of the decision) is required prior to the
decision’s implementation. See, e.g., First
National Maintenance, supra fn. 1. These
principles are turned upside down because the
duty to engage in discipline bargaining arises
after the employer has decided to impose dis-
cipline, although discipline bargaining clearly
encompasses the discipline decision itself
(i.e., whether discipline will be imposed); and
bargaining over the discipline decision must
occur before implementation of the discipli-
nary decision (at a time when only effects
bargaining is typically required).
 The New Obligations Exceed the Board’s Au-
thority, Under Section 10(c), When “Cause”
Exists for an Employee’s Suspension or Dis-
charge. Section 10(c) of the Act prohibits the
Board from ordering reinstatement or
backpay in any case where an employee “was

13 See, e.g., Graymont PA, Inc., 364 NLRB No. 37 (2016) (divided
Board decision, applying “clear and unmistakable waiver” standard,
regarding whether collective-bargaining agreement language permitted
employer to make changes in progressive discipline policy). See gen-
erally Provena St. Joseph Medical Center, 350 NLRB 808, 811 (2007).
Cf. Department of Navy v. FLRA, 962 F.2d 48, 57 (D.C. Cir. 1992)
(describing “contract coverage” standard applied by some courts when
evaluating whether unilateral action is permitted); NLRB v. Postal
Service, 8 F.3d 832, 836–837 (D.C. Cir. 1993) (same); Chicago Trib-
une Co. v. NLRB, 974 F.2d 933, 936–937 (7th Cir. 1992) (same).
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD20
suspended or discharged for cause,”14 with
the General Counsel bearing the burden of
proving the absence of “cause.”15 However,
the Board majority’s new requirements apply
to all cases involving discharges and suspen-
sions, including those supported by “cause”;
the majority improperly defines “cause”; and
based on an assumption that the employer is a
wrongdoer, the majority places the burden of
proving “cause” on employers, contrary to
Section 10(c).
 The New Obligations Improperly Impose Sub-
stantive Contract Terms, Contrary to Section
8(d), and Exceed the Board’s Remedial Au-
thority. The Board is prohibited from impos-
ing substantive terms on parties using the
guise of enforcing Section 8(a)(5) bargaining
requirements, and discipline is one of the
most commonly negotiated subjects of bar-
gaining.16 I believe the majority’s new obli-
gations exceed the Board’s Section 8(a)(5)
authority, as limited by Section 8(d) of the
Act,17 and they exceed the Board’s remedial
authority because the Board is not “free to set
up any system of penalties which it would

14 Sec. 10(c) (“No order of the Board shall require the reinstatement
of any individual as an employee . . . or the payment to him of any
backpay, if such individual was suspended or discharged for cause.”);
see Babcock & Wilcox Construction Co., 361 NLRB No. 132, slip op.
at 15–19 (2014) (Member Miscimarra, concurring in part and dissent-
ing in part).
15 See fns. 141 & 143, infra and accompanying text; see also Bab-
cock, 361 NLRB No. 132, slip op. at 15–19 (Member Miscimarra,
concurring in part and dissenting in part).
16 See Sec. 8(d) (the duty to bargain “does not compel either party to
agree to a proposal or require the making of a concession”); H. K. Por-
ter Co., Inc. v. NLRB, 397 U.S. 99, 102, 108 (1970) (“[W]hile the
Board does have power under the National Labor Relations Act . . . to
require employers and employees to negotiate, it is without power to
compel a company or a union to agree to any substantive contractual
provision of a collective bargaining agreement. . . . [A]llowing the
Board to compel agreement when the parties themselves are unable to
agree would violate the fundamental premise on which the Act is
based—private bargaining under governmental supervision of the pro-
cedure alone, without any official compulsion over the actual terms of
the contract.”); NLRB v. American National Insurance Co., 343 U.S.
395, 404 (1952). See also Babcock, 361 NLRB No. 132, slip op. at 16
(Member Miscimarra, concurring in part and dissenting in part) (the
requirement of “cause” for discipline has been called “the most im-
portant principle of labor relations in the unionized firm”) (citing Rob-
ert I. Abrams & Dennis R. Nolan, Toward a Theory of “Just Cause” in
Employee Discipline Cases, 1985 Duke L.J. 594) (footnotes omitted).
17 Sec. 8(d) (the duty to bargain collectively “does not compel either
party to agree to a proposal or require the making of a concession”);
H.K. Porter, 397 U.S. at 102; American National Insurance, 343 U.S.
at 404.
deem adequate” to “have the effect of deter-
ring persons from violating the Act.”18
 Exceptions and Qualifications. The new re-
quirements are replete with qualifications and
exceptions that make it impossible for parties
to achieve any reasonable measure of certain-
ty and predictability. If parties engage in dis-
cipline bargaining, the likely outcome will be
widespread disagreement and more disci-
pline-related Board litigation than has ever
occurred in the past.
Moreover, several additional considerations trouble me
regarding these new discipline-bar and discipline-
bargaining requirements.
First, I have stated that “when changing existing law,
the Board should first endeavor to do no harm: we
should be vigilant to avoid doing violence to undisputed,
decades-old principles that are clear, widely understood,
and easy to apply.”19 I believe the majority’s new disci-
pline-bar and discipline-bargaining obligations flout this
principle. The discipline bar precludes the continued
application of unchanged disciplinary standards, when
the union may not have requested bargaining, and when
bargaining may not have commenced regarding any sub-
ject. The discipline bar may apply when no contract ob-
ligations even exist, and is more restrictive than what
will likely result from collective bargaining itself. (Most
collective-bargaining agreements recognize the employ-
er’s right to impose discipline or discharge, usually for
“cause,” without notice to the union, with a post-
implementation right to discuss relevant issues, which
may potentially culminate in arbitration.)20 Moreover,

18 Republic Steel v. NLRB, 311 U.S. at 12. Likewise, the Board’s au-
thority to devise remedies “does not go so far as to confer a punitive
jurisdiction enabling the Board to inflict upon the employer any penalty
it may choose because he is engaged in unfair labor practices, even
though the Board be of the opinion that the policies of the Act might be
effectuated by such an order.” Consolidated Edison v. NLRB, 305 U.S.
at 235–236. As the Supreme Court stated in Republic Steel: “We do
not think that Congress intended to vest in the Board a virtually unlim-
ited discretion to devise punitive measures, and thus to prescribe penal-
ties or fines which the Board may think would effectuate the policies of
the Act.” 311 U.S. at 11.
19 Purple Communications, Inc., 361 NLRB No. 126, slip op. at 18
(2014) (Member Miscimarra, dissenting) (emphasis added).
20 In most collective-bargaining agreements, “discipline and dis-
charge” are “regarded as an inherent management right,” and “[t]ypical
grievance and arbitration provisions subject discipline and discharge
actions to a ‘just cause’ standard, and culminate in final and binding
arbitration.” BNA, Collective Bargaining Negotiations and Contracts,
Collective Bargaining and Contract Clauses (Analysis), at 9:501
(http://laborandemploymentlaw.bna.com/lerc/2445/
split_display.adp?fedfid=1480578&vname=lecbnana&fcn=
1&wsn=500784000&fn=1480578&split=0) (last viewed August 7,
2016). Significantly, in First National Maintenance, the Supreme
Court attached significance to “evidence of current labor practice,”
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 21
the rules governing discipline bargaining are completely
unlike the standards applicable to every other type of
bargaining that occurs under the Act.
Second, like the 50 words Eskimos have for “snow,”21
new words must be invented for “discipline” because the
word discipline no longer suffices when describing these
new obligations. My colleagues make a layer cake of
differentiations that no reasonable person can digest:
(a) More Serious vs. Less Serious Discipline. The new
requirements ostensibly apply to more serious disci-
pline, i.e., discipline that has an “inevitable and imme-
diate impact on an employee’s tenure, status, or earn-
ings, such as suspension, demotion, or discharge.”22
However, my colleagues state that “most warnings,
corrective actions, counselings, and the like will not re-
quire preimposition bargaining, assuming they do not
automatically result in more serious discipline, based
on an employer’s progressive disciplinary system, that
itself would require such bargaining.”23
The above reference to “an employer’s progressive dis-
ciplinary system” opens up an array of additional po-
tential disputes, since our existing cases reveal substan-
tial uncertainty about what constitutes “progressive dis-
cipline.”24
(b) Discretionary vs. Fixed Aspects of Discipline. The
new requirements ostensibly do not apply to fixed as-
pects of discipline (e.g., if the employer automatically
suspends employees for absenteeism, although the
length of the suspension varies), although my col-
leagues say that the “fixed” aspect of the discipline will
be binding on the employer (the employer “must main-
tain the fixed aspects of the discipline system”), and

which prompted the Court to find that Sec. 8(a)(5) imposed no duty to
bargain over partial closing decisions because “provisions giving un-
ions a right to participate in the decisionmaking process” were “rela-
tively rare,” in comparison to the much more common contract provi-
sions regarding “notice” and bargaining over “effects.” 452 U.S. at 684
(citations omitted). See also fn. 45, infra and accompanying text.
21 David Robson, There really are 50 Eskimo words for “snow,” The
Washington Post, Jan. 14, 2013 (https://www.washingtonpost.com/
national/health-science/there-really-are-50-eskimo-words-for-
snow/2013/01/14/e0e3f4e0-59a0-11e2-beee-6e38f5215402_story.html)
(last visited August 11, 2016).
22 Majority opinion, slip op. at 4.
23 Id. The union’s right to information in discipline bargaining ap-
plies to all levels of discipline, according to my colleagues. Id. at 4 fn.
10.
24 See, e.g., Veolia Transportation Services, 363 NLRB No. 98, slip
op. at 13 (2016) (Veolia I) (Member Miscimarra, dissenting); Veolia
Transportation Services, 363 NLRB No. 188, slip op. at 12–13 (2016)
(Veolia II) (Member Miscimarra, dissenting). See also Republican Co.,
361 NLRB No. 15, slip op. at 7–8 (2014); Lucky Cab Co., 360 NLRB
No. 43, slip op. at 3 (2014).
bargaining will only be required “over the discretionary
aspects.” However, my colleagues’ opinion contains a
thinly veiled concession that nearly all discipline is dis-
cretionary.25
(c) Pre-Implementation vs. Post-Implementation Bar-
gaining. The new discipline bargaining requirement
makes it nearly impossible to determine when disci-
pline can actually be imposed. The majority states the
discipline-bargaining duty arises only “after the em-
ployer has preliminarily decided (with or without an
investigatory interview) to impose serious discipline.”26
In such “serious discipline” cases, the discipline-
bargaining duty—regarding “discretionary” aspects of
the discipline (see subpart “b” above)— must be satis-
fied “before proceeding to impose the discipline.”27
The more lenient treatment for “lesser sanctions” (per-
mitting discipline bargaining after discipline is im-
posed) does not apply when the oral or written warn-
ings “automatically result in more serious discipline,
based on an employer’s progressive disciplinary sys-
tem.” See subpart “a” above. Therefore, even in such
“lesser” discipline cases—where the “lesser” types of
discipline combined with a “progressive disciplinary
system” will “automatically result in more serious dis-
cipline”—the discipline-bargaining duty arises before
discipline is imposed. See subpart “a” above.
The above rules only govern when discipline bargain-
ing must begin. After the commencement of discipline
bargaining, different rules govern when discipline may
actually occur. Here again, my colleagues have invent-
ed new principles:
 “Lesser” discipline (with no “progressive
disciplinary system”): discipline bargaining
required AFTER discipline is imposed. When
dealing with “lesser sanctions” (e.g., oral or
written warnings, with no progressive disci-
plinary system resulting “automatically” in
“more serious discipline”), the discipline can
be imposed before discipline bargaining

25 The majority acknowledges that “discretion is inherent—in fact,
unavoidable—in most kinds of discipline,” but they hold that this “con-
firms that a bargaining obligation attaches to the exercise of such dis-
cretion.” Majority opinion, slip op. at 11 (emphasis added). Likewise,
the majority states: “The inevitability of discretion in most decisions to
discipline does not support treating it differently from other forms of
unilateral change; indeed, it makes bargaining over disciplinary actions
that much more critical.” Id. (emphasis added).
26 Majority opinion, slip op. at 8 (emphasis added).
27 Id. (emphasis added). See also id., slip op at 5 (the discipline-
bargaining duty “is triggered before a suspension, demotion, discharge,
or analogous sanction is imposed”) (emphasis added).
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD22
commences, as described above. However,
discipline bargaining must still take place af-
terwards, and continue until there is an
agreement or impasse.
 More “serious” discipline (and “lesser” dis-
cipline with a “progressive disciplinary sys-
tem”): discipline bargaining must commence
BEFORE discipline is imposed. When deal-
ing with more “serious” discipline (suspen-
sions, demotions, or discharges), and “lesser”
discipline resulting “automatically” in more
serious discipline (based on a “progressive
disciplinary system”), an opportunity for dis-
cipline bargaining must be provided before
discipline is implemented. This means, be-
fore imposing the discipline, the employer
must (i) provide “sufficient advance notice to
the union”;28 (ii) provide enough time for
“meaningful discussion concerning the
grounds for imposing discipline” and “the
form of discipline chosen” (assuming this in-
volves “discretion”), along with “providing
the union with relevant information, if a time-
ly request is made, under the Board’s estab-
lished approach to information requests”;29
and (iii) permit the union to “effectively rep-
resent the employee by, for example, provid-
ing exculpatory or mitigating information to
the employer, pointing out disparate treat-
ment, or suggesting alternative courses of ac-
tion.”30
 WHEN Can Discipline Be Imposed After
“Discipline Bargaining” Commences? If the
employer satisfies the above requirements be-
fore imposing discipline, the employer may
complete the discipline-bargaining process af-
ter the discipline is imposed, provided that
bargaining thereafter to an impasse or agree-
ment occurs “promptly.”31 However, precise-
ly when can discipline be imposed during the

28 Id., slip op. at 8.
29 Id.
30 Id., slip op. at 9.
31 Id., slip op. at 8. Thus, the majority states that, after discipline
bargaining commences, “the employer is not required to bargain to
agreement or impasse at this stage; rather, if the parties do not reach
agreement, the employer may impose the selected disciplinary action
and then continue bargaining [subsequently] to agreement or impasse.”
Id., slip op. at 9 (emphasis added). Again, the employer’s right to
impose discipline without first bargaining to an impasse or agreement is
conditioned on the employer doing so “promptly” afterward. Id., slip
op. at 8.
discipline-bargaining process? The Board
majority provides no answer to this question.
 After Imposing Discipline, Employers Must
Bargain in Good Faith about “Rescinding”
the Discipline. Even after the employer has
lawfully implemented a discipline decision
before discipline bargaining has proceeded to
an impasse or agreement, the employer must
“promptly”32 or “immediately” engage in fur-
ther good-faith bargaining over “the possibil-
ity of rescinding” the discipline.33
(d) “Exigent” Circumstances Where Immediate Disci-
pline Is Permitted. The majority creates a category of
discipline warranted by “exigent” circumstances, de-
fined as a “reasonable, good-faith belief that an em-
ployee’s continued presence on the job presents a seri-
ous, imminent danger to the employer’s business or
personnel.”34 Examples include “unlawful conduct that
poses a significant risk of exposing the employer to le-
gal liability for the employee’s conduct, or threatens
safety, health, or security in or outside the workplace.”
Even in such circumstances, the employer must engage
in after-the-fact discipline bargaining, an obligation that
must be satisfied “immediately afterward.”35
(e) Discipline Where “Cause” Exists vs. Where It Does
Not. As noted above, Section 10(c) of the Act states:
“No order of the Board shall require the reinstatement
of any individual as an employee who has been sus-
pended or discharged, or the payment to him of any
backpay, if such individual was suspended or dis-
charged for cause.” According to the Board majority,
employers must satisfy the new discipline-bar and dis-
cipline-bargaining requirements, even when “cause”
exists for an employee’s suspension or discharge, ex-
cept my colleagues permit an employer in Board com-
pliance proceedings (which may not occur until after
years of litigation) to establish the existence of “cause,”
with the employer bearing the burden of proof.36

32 Id., slip op. at 8.
33 Id., slip op. at 9.
34 Id. See also id., slip op. at 8 (“In exigent circumstances, as de-
fined, the employer may act prior to bargaining provided that, immedi-
ately afterward, it provides the union with notice and an opportunity to
bargain about the disciplinary decision and its effects.”).
35 Id., slip op. at 8.
36 Id., slip op. at 13–15. As noted below, my colleagues’ treatment
of Sec. 10(c), and making the employer bear the burden of proving
“cause,” is opposite what is required by Sec. 10(c), which imposes the
burden of proof on the General Counsel to prove all violations based on
the “preponderance of the testimony taken,” which includes the burden
of proving the absence of “cause.” See fn. 141, infra and accompany-
ing text.
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 23
Everybody who seeks to comply with the new obligations
will have difficulty with these distinctions. In addition to
disputing the need for discipline, the majority’s standards
create additional intractable questions, such as (i) what con-
stitutes a sufficient opportunity for pre-implementation dis-
cipline bargaining; (ii) what constitutes a “fixed” versus
“discretionary” aspect of discipline; (iii) whether a “pro-
gressive disciplinary system” exists, in situations involving
“lesser” discipline, that requires pre-implementation disci-
pline bargaining rather than post-implementation discipline
bargaining; (iv) in what circumstances does an employee’s
continued presence involve “a serious, imminent danger to
the employer’s business or personnel” (permitting post-
implementation discipline bargaining); and (v) where, for
example, an employee has killed, assaulted, or raped a
coworker, resulting in the employee’s immediate discharge,
in what way does the Board majority contemplate the em-
ployer can “immediately”37 engage in post-implementation
bargaining in good faith about “the possibility of rescind-
ing” the discipline?38
Third, the new disciplinary obligations reflect a disre-
gard for the manner in which parties conduct collective
bargaining. Unions and employers face enormous chal-
lenges in contract negotiations: prioritizing issues, rec-
onciling divergent positions, preparing and responding to
information requests, and managing the bargaining pro-
cess. Contract negotiations encompass all mandatory
subjects of bargaining, including the union’s right, under
existing law, to request bargaining over discipline stand-
ards and procedures. The interplay among multiple is-
sues provides the opportunity for parties to reach an
overall agreement. Today’s decision will encumber con-
tract negotiations by producing, in every case involving
discipline, a new separate duty to engage in single-issue

37 Majority opinion, slip op. at 8 (quoted in fn. 34, supra).
38 Id., slip op. at 9. I disagree with my colleagues’ suggestion that
references to potential workplace homicides, assaults, or rapes are
merely “provocative” efforts to “gin up fear of a falling sky” (Majority
opinion, slip op at 9 fn. 21). In this regard, my colleagues fail to
acknowledge that these new obligations will apply to all serious forms
of discipline, which may well be imposed for extremely serious work-
place misconduct, including felony. Even more significant is the fact
that, even in cases involving felonious conduct, employers remain
bound by the duty to bargain over discipline for such criminal miscon-
duct, even though bargaining may occur after the fact. Although my
colleagues state they “have no doubt that such bargaining would reach
agreement or impasse in exceedingly short order,” they fail to recog-
nize that the employer in such cases must take action before criminal
proceedings have been completed, and often before criminal proceed-
ings have commenced. To impose a duty to bargain over discipline in
such cases, when one would think the appropriateness of discipline
cannot be disputed, represents a significant obligation; and the Board’s
ill-defined standards remain likely to produce extensive litigation,
especially because the majority does not even permit the issue of
“cause” to be raised until compliance proceedings.
discipline bargaining,39 where the absence of multiple
issues makes the prospect of reaching agreement ex-
tremely remote. It is especially objectionable for the
Board to single out employers who fail to enter into up-
front agreements resolving discipline, grievances, and
arbitration—which are three of the most important issues
addressed in any set of contract negotiations—while stat-
ing these new obligations do not apply to any employer
who enters into such an agreement. This is more than a
finger on the scale: it places the entire weight of the
Board’s regulatory authority on those unlucky employers
who exercise their right to negotiate discipline, grievanc-
es, and arbitration together with all other mandatory bar-
gaining subjects.40
Fourth, the problems associated with discipline bar-
gaining are strikingly similar to the considerations that
prompted the Supreme Court to conclude, in First Na-
tional Maintenance,41 that the Act imposes no duty to
bargain over partial closing decisions. In First National
Maintenance, the Court observed that unions were al-
ready protected by Section 8(a)(3)’s prohibition against

39 The Board and the courts have disfavored a party’s insistence that
single issues be addressed separately in bargaining, in isolation, as a
precondition to the discussion of other mandatory bargaining subjects.
See, e.g., Eastern Maine Medical Center, 253 NLRB 224 (1980) (un-
lawful refusal to bargain in good faith where, among other things, em-
ployer refused to negotiate seriously on economic issues until non-
economic issues were resolved to its satisfaction), enfd. 658 F.2d 1 (1st
Cir. 1981); Lustrelon, Inc., 289 NLRB 378 (1988) (unlawful refusal to
bargain in good faith where, among other things, employer conditioned
further bargaining on withdrawal of union demands), affd. 869 F.2d
590 (3d Cir. 1989). See generally Bottom Line Enterprises, 302 NLRB
at 374 (“[A]n employer’s obligation . . . encompasses a duty to refrain
from implementation at all, unless and until an overall impasse has
been reached on bargaining for the agreement as a whole.”); RBE Elec-
tronics of S.D., 320 NLRB at 80 (same). Although Bottom Line and
RBE Electronics are well established, I do not pass on whether these
decisions were correctly decided.
Although my colleagues maintain that individual discipline actions
can be addressed by employers and unions as “stand-alone issues” that
would be “separate and distinct from the issue to be resolved in contract
bargaining” (Majority opinion, slip op. at 10 fn. 22), this represents a
clear departure from existing Board law, because Bottom Line and RBE
Electronics (and their progeny) clearly hold that parties cannot satisfy
bargaining obligations on a single-issue basis during periods when
there is no contract in effect. Rather, the duty is a duty to bargain to an
overall impasse or agreement, subject to extremely limited exceptions
that would be inapplicable in most situations.
40 Most assuredly, I am not arguing that my colleagues should elimi-
nate the “safe harbor” they have created for all employers who enter
into the type of up-front “interim” agreement described by my col-
leagues, which would make these new obligations apply to even more
employers and unions. Rather, I believe these new obligations are
objectionable in their entirety. Yet, the need for a “safe harbor,” and
the fact that my colleagues apply the new obligations only to those
employers who fail to enter into a particular type of agreement favored
by the Board majority, reinforce my view that this arrangement does
not reflect legitimate rights and obligations that exist under our statute.
41 452 U.S. 666 (1981).
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD24
decisions “motivated by antiunion animus.”42 The Court
held that a union’s “practical purpose” in having bargain-
ing over partial closing decisions would be “largely uni-
form: it will seek to delay or halt the closing.”43 The
Court indicated that bargaining “could afford a union a
powerful tool for achieving delay, a power that might be
used to thwart management’s intentions in a manner un-
related to any feasible solution the union might pro-
pose.”44 Attaching significance to “current labor prac-
tice,” the Court found that Section 8(a)(5) imposes no
duty to bargain over partial closing decisions in part be-
cause contract provisions imposing such a requirement
were “relatively rare,” in comparison to contract provi-
sions providing for notice and effects bargaining, which
were “more prevalent.”45 Similarly, in most collective-
bargaining agreements, “discipline and discharge” are
“regarded as an inherent management right,” subject to a
contractual “cause” requirement and the union’s post-
implementation right to challenge discipline in grievance
arbitration.46 My colleagues concede it is “typical in
most complete collective-bargaining agreements” to have
contract clauses “that . . . permit the employer to act first
followed by a grievance and, potentially, arbitration.”47
One would never know, from reading the majority’s
opinion, that these arrangements have been celebrated as
among the most remarkable achievements in the Act’s
history.48 Most significant is the Supreme Court’s rejec-

42 Id. at 682.
43 Id. at 681.
44 Id. at 683.
45 Id. at 684. See also Weingarten, 420 U.S. at 267 (“The statutory
right confirmed today is in full harmony with actual industrial practice.
Many important collective-bargaining agreements have provisions that
accord employees rights of union representation at investigatory inter-
views.”) (footnote and citation omitted); Fibreboard Paper Products
Corp. v. NLRB, 379 U.S. 203, 211 (1964) (“The conclusion that ‘con-
tracting out’ is a statutory subject of collective bargaining is further
reinforced by industrial practices in this country. While not determina-
tive, it is appropriate to look to industrial bargaining practices in ap-
praising the propriety of including a particular subject within the scope
of mandatory bargaining.”) (footnote and citations omitted).
46 BNA, Collective Bargaining Negotiations and Contracts, Collec-
tive Bargaining and Contract Clauses (Analysis), at 9:501
(http://laborandemploymentlaw.bna.com/lerc/2445/split_display.adp?
fedfid=1480578&vname=lecbnana&fcn=1&wsn=500784000&fn=
1480578&split=0) (last viewed August 7, 2016) (“Typical grievance
and arbitration provisions subject discipline and discharge actions to a
‘just cause’ standard, and culminate in final and binding arbitration.” ).
47 Majority opinion, slip op at 9 fn. 22. Significantly, the Board in
Alan Ritchey stated: “We are not aware of any evidence that a practice
of preimposition bargaining over discipline has ever been common in
workplaces governed by the Act. In contrast, postimposition bargain-
ing, in the form of a grievance-arbitration system, is commonplace.”
359 NLRB at 406. This is one of only a handful of passages in Alan
Ritchey that my colleagues have omitted from today’s decision.
48 According to my colleagues, to “permit employers to exercise uni-
lateral discretion over discipline . . . would demonstrate to employees
tion in First National Maintenance of a “presumption”
approach that required bargaining over partial closing
decisions with complicated exceptions that had been de-
vised by the court of appeals.49 The Supreme Court’s
rejection of the “presumption” approach is especially
instructive because my colleagues’ discipline-bargaining
commitments are riddled with exceptions and qualifica-
tions that are even more convoluted, and because the
Supreme Court in First National Maintenance rejected
the ill-fated “presumption” approach based on problems
that are stunningly similar to the weaknesses inherent in
discipline bargaining:
An employer would have difficulty determining before-
hand whether it was faced with a situation requiring
bargaining or one that [was] . . . sufficiently compelling
to obviate the duty to bargain. If it should decide to
risk not bargaining, it might be faced ultimately with
harsh remedies forcing it to pay large amounts of
backpay to employees who likely would have been dis-
charged regardless of bargaining. . . . If the employer
intended to try to fulfill a court’s direction to bargain, it
would have difficulty determining exactly at what stage
of its deliberations the duty to bargain would arise and
what amount of bargaining would suffice before it
could implement its decision. . . . If an employer en-
gaged in some discussion, but did not yield to the un-
ion’s demands, the Board might conclude that the em-
ployer had engaged in “surface bargaining,” a viola-
tion of its good faith. . . . A union, too, would have dif-
ficulty determining the limits of its prerogatives,
whether and when it could use its economic powers to
try to alter an employer’s decision, or whether, in doing
so, it would trigger sanctions from the Board.50
Fifth, the Board majority’s decision today will produce
two outcomes: (1) it will prevent or delay discipline of
represented employees unless agreed to by the union; and

that the Act and the Board’s processes implementing it are ineffectual,
and would render the union . . . impotent.” Majority opinion, slip op. at
10. To the contrary, the concept of discipline based on “cause” has
been referred to as “the most important principle of labor relations in
the unionized firm.” Robert I. Abrams & Dennis R. Nolan, Toward a
Theory of “Just Cause” in Employee Discipline Cases, 1985 Duke L.J.
594. The strong Federal policies favoring arbitration are reflected in
Sec. 203(d) of the Labor Management Relations Act (LMRA), and
were celebrated by the Supreme Court in the Steelworkers Trilogy
cases: Steelworkers v. American Mfg. Co., 363 U.S. 564 (1960); Steel-
workers v. Warrior & Gulf Navigation Co., 363 U.S. 574 (1960);
Steelworkers v. Enterprise Wheel & Car Corp., 363 U.S. 593 (1960).
Indeed, the Supreme Court has described grievance arbitration as “the
very heart of the system of industrial self-government.” Warrior &
Gulf, 363 U.S. at 581.
49 452 U.S. at 672 (citation omitted).
50 Id. at 684–686 (emphasis added; citations omitted).
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 25
(2) it will treat all employers more harshly who fail to
reach an “interim” agreement governing discipline,
grievances and arbitration. Again, it makes no difference
that the discipline may be nondiscriminatory and con-
sistent with what the employer has always done in the
past. And my colleagues even require after-the-fact
good-faith bargaining over “rescinding” discipline when
a discharged employee has committed an assault, rape, or
murder.
I fear that too many people will conclude from today’s
decision that the Board majority simply wants what it
wants. Especially in this respect, the Agency pays a
heavy price for inventing the obligations being rolled out
today. I believe these new obligations detract mightily
from the fact that our statute “is not intended to serve
either party’s individual interest, but to foster in a neutral
manner a system in which the conflict between these
interests may be resolved.”51 These new obligations are

51 First National Maintenance, 452 U.S. at 680–681. Similarly, in
H.K. Porter Co., Inc. v. NLRB, the Supreme Court stressed that the Act
imposes limits on the Board’s authority to impose its own views re-
garding substantive terms that have not been agreed to by the parties in
collective bargaining:
The object of this Act was not to allow governmental regulation of the
terms and conditions of employment, but rather to ensure that em-
ployers and their employees could work together to establish mutually
satisfactory conditions. The basic theme of the Act was that, through
collective bargaining, the passions, arguments, and struggles of prior
years would be channeled into constructive, open discussions leading,
it was hoped, to mutual agreement. But it was recognized from the
beginning that agreement might, in some cases, be impossible, and it
was never intended that the Government would, in such cases, step in,
become a party to the negotiations, and impose its own views of a de-
sirable settlement.
* * *
It is implicit in the entire structure of the Act that the Board acts to
oversee and referee the process of collective bargaining, leaving the
results of the contest to the bargaining strengths of the parties. It
would be anomalous indeed to hold that, while § 8(d) prohibits the
Board from relying on a refusal to agree as the sole evidence of bad
faith bargaining, the Act permits the Board to compel agreement in
that same dispute. The Board’s remedial powers under § 10 of the
Act are broad, but they are limited to carrying out the policies of the
Act itself. One of these fundamental policies is freedom of contract.
While the parties’ freedom of contract is not absolute under the Act,
allowing the Board to compel agreement when the parties themselves
are unable to agree would violate the fundamental premise on which
the Act is based – private bargaining under governmental supervision
of the procedure alone, without any official compulsion over the actu-
al terms of the contract.
397 U.S. at 103–104, 107–108 (emphasis added; footnotes omitted). See
also NLRB v. Insurance Agents’ International Union, 361 U.S. 477, 497
(1960). (It is not a proper function of the Board to act “as an arbiter of the
sort of economic weapons the parties can use in seeking to gain acceptance
of their bargaining demands.”); American Ship Building Co. v. NLRB, 380
U.S. 300, 317 (1965) (The Board is not vested with “general authority to
assess the relative economic power of the adversaries in the bargaining
likely to hurt, not help, the great majority of employees,
unions, and employers who stand to benefit from suc-
cessful overall contract negotiations. And these new
requirements, including their cumbersome qualifications
and exceptions, will hinder the Board’s disposition of
other discipline cases, where it is already hard enough to
ensure employees have not experienced unlawful anti-
union discrimination in violation of Section 8(a)(3) or
unlawful interference with the exercise of protected
rights in violation of Section 8(a)(1).
C. Specific Problems With the Discipline-Bar and
Discipline-Bargaining Requirements
1. An employer has no 8(a)(5) obligation to bargain over
discipline, when there is no change in existing discipline
standards and procedures
There is no dispute in this case about one thing: an
employer’s disciplinary standards and procedures are
mandatory subjects of bargaining.52 Under the Act, des-
ignation of a subject as a mandatory subject of bargain-
ing has two consequences. First, employers and unions
are required under Sections 8(a)(5) and 8(b)(3) of the Act
to bargain over that subject if bargaining over the subject
is requested. See Borg-Warner, 356 U.S. at 349 (regard-
ing mandatory subjects, the employer and union have an
“obligation . . . to bargain with each other in good faith,”
although “neither party is legally obligated to yield”).53
Second, an employer or union violates the Act by making
a “unilateral change” in a mandatory bargaining subject,
i.e., by making the change without giving the other party
notice and the opportunity for bargaining to an impasse

process and to deny weapons to one party or the other because of its assess-
ment of that party’s bargaining power.”).
52 See, e.g., Dazzo Products, Inc., 149 NLRB 182, 188 (1964), enfd.
358 F.2d 136 (2d Cir. 1966); Toledo Blade Co., 343 NLRB 385 (2004);
BHP Coal New Mexico, 341 NLRB 1316 (2004); Electri-Flex Co., 228
NLRB 847 (1977), enfd. as modified 570 F.2d 1327 (7th Cir. 1978),
cert. denied 439 U.S. 911 (1978). A subject is considered a “mandato-
ry” subject of bargaining when it is among the subjects described in
Sec. 8(d) of the Act, which defines the duty to bargain collectively as
encompassing “wages, hours, and other terms and conditions of em-
ployment.” NLRB v. Borg-Warner Corp., 356 U.S. 342 (1958).
53 See also NLRB v. Katz, 369 U.S. at 743 (“A refusal to negotiate in
fact as to any subject which is within § 8(d), and about which the union
seeks to negotiate, violates § 8(a)(5) though the employer has every
desire to reach agreement with the union upon an over-all collective
agreement and earnestly and in all good faith bargains to that end.”);
Dazzo Products, Inc., 149 NLRB 182, 188 (1964), enfd. 358 F.2d 136
(2d Cir. 1966) (same).
There are some exceptions to the requirement to bargain upon re-
quest over a mandatory subject, including, for example, where the
parties have entered into a collective-bargaining agreement that sus-
pends the obligation to bargain for the agreement’s term, or that consti-
tutes a waiver of the obligation to bargain or covers the subject matter
at issue. See fn. 13, supra.
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD26
or agreement.54 See NLRB v. Katz, 369 U.S. at 743
(holding that a “unilateral change in conditions of em-
ployment under negotiation . . . is a circumvention of the
duty to negotiate”). When employees are represented, it
violates Section 8(a)(5) if the employer implements a
change in disciplinary standards or procedures without
giving the union notice and the opportunity for bargain-
ing to impasse or an agreement. See, e.g., Beverly
Health & Rehabilitation Services, 332 NLRB 347, 354–
356 (2000), enfd. 297 F.3d 468 (6th Cir. 2002).
Conversely, an employer does not violate the Act by
taking actions consistent with what has occurred in the
past. Therefore, to the extent an employer imposes dis-
cipline using the same disciplinary standards and proce-
dures that have existed in the past, this maintains the
status quo and is not a “change” that requires bargaining.
This is sometimes referred to as the “dynamic status
quo,” which has been explained by Professors Gorman
and Finkin as follows:
[T]he case law (including the Katz decision itself)
makes clear that conditions of employment are to be
viewed dynamically and that the status quo against
which the employer’s “change” is considered must
take account of any regular and consistent past pattern
of change. An employer modification consistent with
such a pattern is not a “change” in working conditions
at all.55
This principle has been applied across the board to all man-
datory bargaining subjects. For example, in Westinghouse
Electric (Mansfield Plant), 150 NLRB at 1576, which in-
volved subcontracting, the employer had no obligation to
bargain when it did “not appear that the subcontracting . . .
materially varied in kind or degree from that which had
been customary in the past” (emphasis added).56 Even

54 The Board has long distinguished between (i) the duty to bargain
over any or all mandatory subjects when asked by the union to do so,
and (ii) the duty to refrain making changes in mandatory subjects un-
less the changes are preceded by giving the union notice and the oppor-
tunity for bargaining to an impasse or agreement. See, e.g., Westing-
house Electric Corp. (Mansfield Plant), 150 NLRB at 1576–1577 (find-
ing that the employer did not change its established subcontracting
practice and thus was not obligated to provide the union notice and an
opportunity to bargain before engaging in subcontracting pursuant to
that practice, but clarifying that the employer is under no less of “an
obligation to bargain on request at an appropriate time with respect to
such restrictions or other changes in current subcontracting practices as
the union may wish to negotiate”).
55 Robert A. Gorman, Matthew W. Finkin, Labor Law Analysis and
Advocacy, at 720 (Juris 2013) (emphasis added) (hereinafter “Gorman
& Finkin”).
56 To the same effect, the Board likewise held that unilateral sub-
contracting was lawful in Shell Oil Co., 149 NLRB 283, 288 (1964),
where the subcontracting at issue had not “materially varied in kind or
when dealing with something as central to the Act as wages,
the Board has likewise found that, when an employer has a
past practice of providing certain wage increases, an em-
ployer does not violate Section 8(a)(5) when it provides new
wage increases in keeping with that practice without bar-
gaining. See, e.g., Daily News of Los Angeles, 315 NLRB
1236 (1994), enfd. 73 F.3d 406 (D.C. Cir. 1996). The
Board has also found that Section 8(a)(5) requires the em-
ployer to provide new wage increases without bargaining,
even when past increases have varied in amount based on
the employer’s exercise of discretion. See, e.g., Mission
Foods, 350 NLRB 336, 337 (2007); Central Maine Morn-
ing Sentinel, 295 NLRB 376 (1989).57
When an employer has taken similar actions in the
past, the Board does not require bargaining over minor
variations. Therefore, “[w]hen changes in existing plant
rules . . . constitute merely particularizations of, or delin-
eations of means for carrying out, an established rule or
practice,” it is lawful to continue applying the same rules
without bargaining because the changes are not suffi-
ciently “material, substantial, and significant” to require
notice and the opportunity to bargain. Bath Iron Works
Corp., 302 NLRB 898, 901 (1991); see Trading Port,
Inc., 224 NLRB 980, 983–984 (1976) (employer imple-
mented no change that required bargaining when the em-
ployer applied its preexisting productivity standards,
including penalties for failing to satisfy those standards,
but “devised a more efficient means of detecting individ-
ual levels of productivity, of policing individual efficien-
cy, and advanced a more stringent view towards below
average producers than in the preceding 18 months or
so”).
These principles contradict the Board majority’s new
discipline-bar and discipline-bargaining requirements,
which make it unlawful for the employer to take discipli-
nary action consistent with what it has done in the past,
even though there has been no “change” within the
meaning of Katz, and even though the employer has not
refused to bargain over disciplinary standards and proce-
dures in contract negotiations. Indeed, in relation to
wages, the Board has found that when a past practice

degree from that which had been customary in the past.” Cf. Shell Oil
Co., 166 NLRB 1064 (1967).
57 In my view, the Board must exercise considerable care when in-
terpreting Katz—where the Supreme Court described a defense against
an allegation that an employer’s unilateral changes violated Sec.
8(a)(5)—to mean that Sec. 8(a)(5) imposes an obligation on employers
to make unilateral changes in wages, particularly since the Act explicit-
ly states that the duty to bargain “does not compel either party to agree
to a proposal or require the making of a concession.” Sec. 8(d); see
also H.K. Porter Co. v. NLRB, 397 U.S. at 102. I do not here reach or
pass on the validity of cases that apply this reverse version of the Katz
exception.
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 27
exists, Section 8(a)(5) requires the employer to take the
same actions prospectively without bargaining, notwith-
standing the exercise of discretion regarding various as-
pects of the wage increases provided in the past. Mission
Foods, 350 NLRB at 337; Central Maine Morning Senti-
nel, 295 NLRB at 376.
There is no merit in my colleagues’ contention that ex-
isting case law prohibits actions consistent with past
practice whenever the employer’s actions involve some
degree of discretion. For starters, nearly every decision
taken by an employer involves discretion, regardless of
whether the subject is discipline, subcontracting, or wage
increases (to mention three examples). In every case,
someone must decide whether business considerations
warrant taking a particular action, when such actions
should be taken, and whether new developments might
warrant a different course of action (which, if it involves
a substantial and material “change,” at that point would
require notice and the opportunity for bargaining). My
colleagues concede, reluctantly, that decisions to impose
discipline unavoidably involve an element of discretion.
Thus, the Board majority acknowledges that “discretion
is inherent—in fact, unavoidable—in most kinds of dis-
cipline,” but they conclude this “confirms that a bargain-
ing obligation attaches to the exercise of such discre-
tion.”58 Likewise, the majority states: “The inevitability
of discretion in most decisions to discipline does not
support treating it differently from other forms of unilat-
eral change.”59
Today’s decision is also directly contradicted by the
Board’s decision in Fresno Bee.60 There, the Board
squarely rejected claims that the employer violated Sec-
tion 8(a)(5) based on a failure to engage in pre-discipline
bargaining. In Fresno Bee the employer exercised dis-
cretion regarding the imposition of discipline, but it ad-
hered to “detailed and thorough written discipline poli-
cies and procedures” that existed before the union be-
came the employees’ representative.61 For this reason,
the Board upheld the judge’s finding (relying on Bath
Iron Works and Trading Port, discussed above) that the
employer “made no unilateral change in lawful terms or
conditions of employment.”62 Since Fresno Bee cannot
be reconciled with the new discipline-bar and discipline-
bargaining requirements, my colleagues overrule it.63
However, Fresno Bee accurately reflects what the Act
requires—and what it does not—and correctly interprets

58 Majority opinion, slip op. at 11 (emphasis added).
59 Id. (emphasis added).
60 337 NLRB 1161 (2002).
61 Id. at 1186.
62 Id. at 1186–1187.
63 Majority opinion, slip op. at 7.
the Supreme Court’s “unilateral change” holding in Katz,
which remains controlling as to the issue presented in
this case.
As to other case law, my colleagues rely on four cas-
es—Washoe Medical Center,64 Oneita Knitting Mills,65
Adair Standish Corp.,66 and Eugene Iovine, Inc.67—for
the proposition that discretion triggers an obligation to
provide notice and the opportunity for bargaining before
an employer implements a decision to impose discipline.
In my view, none of these cases supports the proposition
urged by my colleagues.
Preliminarily, Washoe is the only case cited by my col-
leagues that involves discipline. In Washoe, the adminis-
trative law judge stated that “it is not sufficient that the
General Counsel show only some exercise of discretion
to prove the alleged violation; the General Counsel must
also demonstrate that imposition of discipline constituted
a change in Respondent’s policies and procedures.”68
The judge’s statement correctly summarizes applicable
law (as the above discussion demonstrates). However, in
a footnote, the Board expressed disagreement with the
judge’s statement “[i]n light of the Board’s holding in
Oneita Knitting Mills.” However, Oneita involved dis-
puted merit wage increases—not discipline—and the
Board addressed whether the merit increases were suffi-
ciently irregular in amount to require bargaining. More
generally, the Board’s reference in Washoe to the judge’s
“discretion” comment was dicta (i.e., not part of the
Board’s holding) because (i) the Board in Washoe upheld
the dismissal of the claim that the employer unlawfully
failed to bargain over discipline, and (ii) the Board’s
dismissal was based on a reason unrelated to whether or
not the discipline constituted a change or involved dis-
cretion. As to the latter, the judge found that the union
“never requested bargaining over any of the employee
discipline,” but she failed to pass on whether this failure
to request bargaining warranted dismissal of the refusal-
to-bargain claim.69 However, the Board upheld the dis-
missal of the refusal-to-bargain claim on this very
ground. The Board stated: “We affirm the judge’s rec-
ommended dismissal of the allegation that the Respond-
ent unlawfully failed to bargain before-the-fact, i.e., be-
fore the planned imposition of specific discipline on par-
ticular employees. The record does not establish that the
Union at any time sought to engage in . . . bargaining.”70

64 337 NLRB 202 (2001).
65 205 NLRB 500 (1973).
66 292 NLRB 890 (1989), enfd. in relevant part 912 F.2d 854 (6th
Cir. 1990).
67 328 NLRB 294 (1999), enfd. 1 Fed. Appx. 8 (2d Cir. 2001).
68 337 NLRB at 202 fn. 1.
69 Id. at 206.
70 Id. at 202 fn. 1 (emphasis added).
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD28
In short, Washoe does not constitute relevant precedent
for the proposition for which my colleagues rely upon it
because the Board found the employer did not violate the
Act, and the Board reached this conclusion for reasons
unrelated to whether the discipline constituted a
“change” under Katz. And even if the Board held in
Washoe that the duty to bargain over discipline turns on
discretion (which was not part of the Board’s holding in
Washoe), this proposition was directly rejected by the
Board in Fresno Bee, described previously.
None of the three remaining cases relied upon by the
majority supports their conclusion that employers must
refrain from implementing discipline until after they
have given the union notice and the opportunity for bar-
gaining. As noted previously, none of the three remain-
ing cases deal with discipline, and in each case, the
Board found that the employer lacked an established
practice, which meant the employer was required to en-
gage in bargaining before taking new actions. In Oneita,
the employer had an established practice of granting
wage increases at the same time each year, but the
amount of each employee’s increase was entirely discre-
tionary. 205 NLRB at 502. In Adair Standish, although
the employer had previously laid off employees for lack
of work, the selection of employees for layoff was based
on the plant manager’s unconstrained discretion. 292
NLRB at 891. And in Eugene Iovine, where the Board
found the employer violated Section 8(a)(5) by reducing
employee hours unilaterally, the majority adopted the
judge’s finding that the employer “failed to establish a
past practice” of reducing hours. 328 NLRB at 294. In
doing so, the majority relied on the judge’s findings that
“there was no ‘reasonable certainty’ as to the timing” of
those reductions or “the criteria” the employer relied on
in making them, and that “the employer’s discretion to
decide whether to reduce employee hours ‘appear[ed] to
be unlimited.’” Id.71 These three cases, which did not
present the issue presented here, and in which the em-
ployer’s discretion to act was substantially uncon-
strained, do not persuasively support the majority’s deci-
sion to subject individual disciplinary decisions to the
rule of Katz, even when such decisions are substantially
constrained by preexisting standards and/or past practice.
Nor is there merit in my colleagues’ contention that I
find fault in the majority’s discipline-bargaining obliga-

71 I agree with the views expressed by former Member Hurtgen, who
dissented in Eugene Iovine. As Member Hurtgen explained, the em-
ployer had a settled past practice of reducing employees’ hours when
work was down, regardless of the reason for a downturn in work. The
employer did not change that practice, and therefore it had no duty to
give the union notice and opportunity to bargain before reducing em-
ployees’ hours due to a downturn in work. 328 NLRB at 295.
tions based on a rejection of the “fundamental legal fact
that an employer’s obligations change when its employ-
ees choose to be represented.”72 As explained above, the
Supreme Court in Katz clearly held—and I just as clearly
recognize—that when employees become represented,
the employer must bargain upon request regarding all
“mandatory” bargaining subjects; the employer must
negotiate over any “change” from the status quo; and the
employer is permitted to continue taking actions, without
bargaining, that maintain the status quo. The problem
here is not anyone’s disagreement with the proposition
that “the employees’ choice of an exclusive representa-
tive requires an employer to bargain over issues that it
has not previously been required to bargain over.”73 The
problem is that my colleagues have created new bargain-
ing obligations that are contrary to the Act, contrary to
Katz, contrary to Board case law, and contrary to other
well-established NLRA principles.
2. Weingarten establishes there is no obligation to bar-
gain over discipline
The absence of a discipline bargaining obligation was
reaffirmed by the Board and the Supreme Court in
Weingarten and related cases. Discipline was the central
focus of Weingarten. The Supreme Court upheld the
right of a represented employee to request the presence
of a union representative when the employee reasonably
believes a meeting could result in discipline.74 In
Weingarten, the Supreme Court agreed with two earlier
Board cases, Quality Manufacturing Co.75 and Mobil Oil
Corp.,76 which the Court quoted extensively with ap-
proval. Most significant are the “contours and limits” of
the right of an employee to request a union representa-
tive’s presence in a disciplinary interview, which are
directly relevant here.77 Among other things, the Su-
preme Court indicated that “the employer has no duty to
bargain with any union representative who may be per-
mitted to attend the investigatory interview,”78 and the
Court stated that it was “‘not giving the Union any par-
ticular rights with respect to predisciplinary discussions
which it otherwise was not able to secure during collec-
tive-bargaining negotiations.’”79 Additionally, the Su-
preme Court indicated that the imposition of discipline
was among the “legitimate employer prerogatives,” and

72 Majority’s opinion, slip op. at 15.
73 Majority’s opinion, slip op. at 16.
74 Weingarten, 420 U.S. at 256–260.
75 195 NLRB 197 (1972).
76 196 NLRB 1052 (1972).
77 420 U.S. at 256.
78 Id. at 259 (emphasis added).
79 Id. (quoting Mobil Oil, 196 NLRB at 1052 fn. 3) (emphasis add-
ed).
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 29
the Court held that an employer—when faced with an
employee’s request to have a union representative attend
a disciplinary interview—could cancel the meeting, re-
fuse to meet with the union representative and the em-
ployee, and impose the discipline “‘on the basis of infor-
mation obtained from other sources.’”80
Most instructive here is the Weingarten Court’s quota-
tion, taken from the Board decision in Quality Manufac-
turing, explaining why an employer could refuse to meet
with the union representative and employee and proceed
on its own with discipline based on whatever other in-
formation the employer previously obtained:
“This seems to us to be the only course consistent with
all of the provisions of our Act. It permits the employer
to reject a collective course in situations such as inves-
tigative interviews where a collective course is not re-
quired but protects the employee’s right to protection
by his chosen agents. Participation in the interview is
then voluntary. . . . And . . . the employer would, of
course, be free to act on the basis of whatever infor-
mation he had and without such additional facts as
might have been gleaned through the interview.”81
In summary, the Supreme Court in Weingarten—and
the Board in Mobil Oil and Quality Manufacturing—
directly addressed when and how an employer could im-
pose discipline on unionized employees. These decisions
make clear that (i) the union’s involvement is limited to
attendance at a pre-disciplinary investigative meeting
with the employee, which the employer has the right to
cancel without explanation;82 (ii) the employer has “no
duty to bargain” with the union representative who at-
tends any such meeting, and (iii) the employer is other-
wise “of course, free to act,” which means free to impose
discipline.83 Moreover, the Supreme Court stated that
imposing discipline is among “legitimate employer pre-
rogatives” (consistent with industrial practice),84 that the
Board has not afforded a union “‘any particular rights
with respect to predisciplinary discussions which it oth-
erwise was not able to secure during collective-
bargaining negotiations,’”85 and that possible unilateral
action by the employer is “‘consistent with all of the pro-

80 Id. at 258–259 (quoting Mobil Oil, 196 NLRB at 1052) (emphasis
added).
81 Id. at 259 (quoting Quality Manufacturing, 195 NLRB at 198–
199) (emphasis added).
82 Id. at 258 (“The employer has no obligation to justify his refusal to
allow union representation, and despite refusal, the employer is free to
carry on his inquiry without interviewing the employee.”).
83 Id. at 259 (emphasis added).
84 Id. at 258; see fns. 20 & 46, supra and accompanying text.
85 Id. at 259 (quoting Mobil Oil, 196 NLRB at 1052 fn. 3) (emphasis
added).
visions of [the] Act’” and “‘a collective course is not re-
quired.’”86 Indeed, the Board was equally direct in its
Weingarten Supreme Court brief, which stated that “the
duty to bargain does not arise prior to the employer’s
decision to impose discipline.”87
All of this renders unreasonable my colleagues’ state-
ment that the discipline-bargaining obligations being
announced today are “in harmony” with Weingarten.
My colleagues contend that the Supreme Court in
Weingarten only addressed whether a “duty to bargain”
exists with a union representative who attends a discipli-
nary interview, which left open the possibility that—
when Weingarten was decided—a yet-to-be discovered
statutory duty to bargain existed that prohibits employers
from imposing any discipline without first giving the
union notice and the opportunity for bargaining. In par-
ticular, my colleagues attach significance to the words
“prior to” and “decision” in the NLRB’s Weingarten
brief, which (as noted above) stated that “the duty to bar-
gain does not arise prior to the employer’s decision to
impose discipline.”88 Here, they get points for their ef-
forts to thread the needle in the following explanation:
“the right that we adopt today does not conflict with the
representations in the Board’s Weingarten brief. . . . As
explained elsewhere in this decision, the obligation to
provide the union with notice and an opportunity to bar-
gain arises after the employer has decided, at least pre-
liminarily, that discipline is warranted, but before the
employer has actually imposed discipline.”89 I believe
the Board majority’s interpretation of Weingarten is in-
correct for several reasons.
The most obvious problem is that the Supreme Court
decision in Weingarten engaged in a comprehensive ex-
amination of the entire disciplinary process. Weingarten
directly addressed participation by union representatives
in disciplinary meetings, but it obviously dealt specifical-
ly with the subject of discipline and held there was no
duty to bargain in disciplinary interviews. This makes it
implausible to believe the Supreme Court or the Board
contemplated that, apart from disciplinary interviews, the
Act imposed a blanket obligation, after the employer
decided to impose discipline, for notice to the union and
bargaining over the disciplinary decision before it could
be imposed. If a general obligation existed for employ-
ers and unions to engage in discipline bargaining before
any disciplinary decision could be implemented, the Su-

86 Id. (quoting Quality Manufacturing, 195 NLRB at 198–199) (em-
phasis added).
87 NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc., Brief for the Board, 1974 WL
186290 (U.S.).
88 Id. (emphasis added).
89 Majority opinion, slip op. at 7 fn. 17 (emphasis added).
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD30
preme Court would not have used the phrase “legitimate
employer prerogatives” when referring to discipline,90
the Court would never have stated (quoting the Board)
that “‘a collective course is not required,’”91 and the
Court would have never stated that potential unilateral
action by the employer was “‘consistent with all of the
provisions of [the] Act.’”92
Additionally, the Supreme Court decided Weingarten
in 1975. If the Board and the Supreme Court believed
our statute requires notice and the opportunity for bar-
gaining over disciplinary decisions before they are im-
plemented, what explains the 37 years that passed fol-
lowing Weingarten—until the Board issued Alan
Ritchey—during which nobody made reference to such
an important bargaining obligation?93 The answer is
obvious: when Weingarten was decided, and throughout
the nearly 4 decades that elapsed between Weingarten
and Alan Ritchey, everybody conceded—including the
Board—that the Act imposes no pre-imposition bargain-
ing obligation in regard to discipline except for each par-
ty’s right to request bargaining over disciplinary stand-
ards and procedures.94
This point was also explicitly made in the Board’s
Weingarten brief, which is apparent when one reads the
entire passage from which my colleagues only quote a
single sentence. The entire passage from the Board’s
brief reads as follows:
The Board’s position does not infringe upon any legit-
imate interest of the employer. The employer has the
option of foregoing the interview if he prefers not to
examine the employee in the presence of his repre-
sentative. The employee under investigation would
then have the choice of either proceeding without rep-
resentation, or allowing the investigation to take its
course without his participation and then attempting to
defend himself at the subsequent grievance stage with

90 420 U.S. at 258; see fns. 20 & 46, supra and accompanying text.
91 Id. at 259 (quoting Quality Manufacturing, 195 NLRB at 198–
199) (emphasis added).
92 Id. (quoting Quality Manufacturing, 195 NLRB at 198–199) (em-
phasis added).
93 As noted previously, Alan Ritchey was rendered invalid by the Su-
preme Court’s decision in Noel Canning.
94 My colleagues state that the 80-year delay in creating these bar-
gaining obligations is “easily explained” by the fact that no “private
party” ever filed a charge permitting the Board to pass on the potential
existence of bargaining obligations relating to discipline. Majority
opinion, slip op. at 5 fn. 14. Given the plethora of discipline disputes
that have been addressed by the Board in the course of 8 decades, it is
difficult to believe that the NLRB never previously had occasion to
pass on the potential existence of an obligation to bargain regarding
discipline. Moreover, as noted in the text, the Board and the Supreme
Court in Weingarten made clear that employers do not have an obliga-
tion to engage in bargaining prior to a decision to impose discipline.
the benefit of representation. Moreover, even if the
employer allows the employee to be accompanied by a
union representative, he is free to insist on obtaining the
employee’s, and not the representative’s, account of the
matter under investigation.
Precedents dealing with the employer’s bargaining ob-
ligation in relation to the disciplinary process are not
controlling here. The Board acknowledges that the du-
ty to bargain does not arise prior to the employer’s de-
cision to impose discipline. However, an employer
may not restrain his employees in their exercise of a
right protected by Section 7 simply because the em-
ployer is not under an additional statutory obligation to
bargain with the employee’s union representative.95
The above passage demonstrates that even the Board in
Weingarten was describing “the employer’s bargaining ob-
ligation in relation to the disciplinary process.”96 Therefore,
when the Board acknowledged that “the duty to bargain
does not arise prior to the employer’s decision to impose
discipline,”97 the Board also meant there was no bargaining
duty regarding the discipline’s implementation. This is
made even clearer when the Board described the employ-
ee’s options if the employer exercised its right not to con-
duct a disciplinary meeting attended by the union repre-
sentative and the employee. In this situation, according to
the Board, the employee’s options included “either proceed-
ing without representation, or allowing the investigation to
take its course without his participation and then attempting
to defend himself at the subsequent grievance stage with the
benefit of representation.”98 Again, this demonstrates that
the Supreme Court and the Board in Weingarten evaluated
the entire “disciplinary process,” which involved two op-
tions—and only two—in relation to the union’s role: (i)
union representation during a disciplinary interview (during
which there is clearly no duty to bargain),99 or (ii) address-
ing any discipline at a “subsequent grievance stage with the
benefit of representation.”100 In relation to this last option,
Weingarten also makes clear that whether there would be a
subsequent “grievance stage” depended on whether griev-
ance-processing concerning discipline had been agreed up-
on by the parties in collective bargaining. As noted previ-
ously, the Court stated: “[W]e are not giving the Union any
particular rights with respect to predisciplinary discussions

95 NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc., Brief for the Board, 1974 WL
186290 (U.S.).
96 Id.
97 Id.
98 Id. (emphasis added).
99 Id.; see also Weingarten, 420 U.S. at 259.
100 NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc., Brief for the Board, 1974 WL
186290 (U.S.).
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 31
which it otherwise was not able to secure during collective-
bargaining negotiations.”101
3. The majority’s new “discipline-bargaining” standards
are fundamentally inconsistent with existing rules
governing decision and effects bargaining
The above discussion highlights another fundamental
contradiction between the rules governing discipline bar-
gaining and existing law. The duty to engage in disci-
pline bargaining created by my colleagues arises, they
say, “after the employer has decided, at least preliminari-
ly, that discipline is warranted, but before the employer
has actually imposed discipline.”102 Yet it is also clear
that discipline bargaining pertains to the discipline deci-
sion itself because my colleagues state there must be
“meaningful discussion concerning the grounds for im-
posing discipline in the particular case, as well as . . . the
form of discipline chosen,”103 and bargaining over the
discipline must encompass “the possibility of rescinding
it.”104 According to the majority, discipline bargaining
likewise involves efforts to change the decision: in dis-
cipline bargaining, the union’s representation of the em-
ployee includes “providing exculpatory or mitigating
information . . . . , pointing out disparate treatment, or
suggesting alternative courses of action.”105 The fact
that discipline bargaining relates to the disciplinary deci-
sion is also clear from the majority’s statement that it
will now require bargaining over the discretionary aspect
of disciplinary decisions “just as we do in cases involv-
ing discretionary layoffs, wage changes, and other
changes in core terms or conditions of employment,
where bargaining is required before an employer’s deci-
sion is implemented.”106 In these other situations, the
Board clearly requires bargaining over the decision. That
is why it is called “decision bargaining.”107
The most important aspect of decision bargaining—
which the majority gets wrong here—relates to when

101 420 U.S. at 259 (quoting Mobil Oil, 196 NLRB at 1052 fn. 3)
(emphasis added).
102 Majority opinion, slip op. at 7 fn. 12 (emphasis in original).
103 Id., slip op. at 8 (emphasis added).
104 Id., slip op. at 9 (emphasis added).
105 Id. (emphasis added).
106 Id., slip op. at 5 (emphasis added).
107 See, e.g., Lapeer Foundry & Machine, Inc., 289 NLRB 952, 954
(1988) (“[T]he decision to lay off employees for economic reasons is a
mandatory subject of bargaining.”); Holmes & Narver, 309 NLRB 146
(1992) (same); NLRB v. Katz, 369 U.S. at 736 (requiring bargaining
over the decision to implement merit increases). See generally First
National Maintenance Corp. v. NLRB, 452 U.S. at 674–688 (generally
describing decision bargaining and effects bargaining). See also IMI
South, LLC d/b/a Irving Materials, 364 NLRB No. 97 (same); Colum-
bia College Chicago, 363 NLRB No. 154, slip op. at 7–10 (Member
Miscimarra, dissenting) (describing effects bargaining). See supra fn.
1.
bargaining must occur. Throughout the Act’s 80-year
history, when decision bargaining is required, the Board
generally requires it before the decision is made. For
example, in National Family Opinion, Inc.,108 the em-
ployer violated its decision-bargaining obligation regard-
ing the decision to subcontract printing operations, even
though it gave nearly 4 weeks’ advance notice before the
decision’s implementation, because “the Union was told
of a completed decision rather than a decision yet to be
finalized.”109
By contrast, only in effects-bargaining cases is the em-
ployer permitted to provide notice to the union after
making a final decision, but before the decision’s imple-
mentation.110 There are two common sense reasons for
this structure, which uniquely relate to effects bargaining
and not decision bargaining. First, when an employer is
only required to engage in effects bargaining, notice is
permitted after the employer has already made the deci-
sion because bargaining regarding the effects of the deci-
sion does not require bargaining over potential alterna-
tives to the decision itself. Second, in effects-bargaining
cases, notice must still be provided prior to the decision’s
implementation because the purpose of effects bargaining
is to permit bargaining over the decision’s impact on unit
employees (i.e., its “effects”). Therefore, even though
effects bargaining is more limited than decision bargain-
ing, employers must provide sufficient notice prior to a
decision’s implementation so effects bargaining can oc-

108 246 NLRB 521 (1979).
109 Id. at 530 (emphasis added). See also P.B. Mutrie Motor Trans-
portation, 226 NLRB 1325, 1330 (1976) (employer violated its deci-
sion-bargaining obligation where, by the time the union received no-
tice, the employer’s “decision had hardened into an irrevocable posi-
tion”). Cf. American President Lines, 229 NLRB 443, 453 (1977)
(employer lawfully engaged in subcontracting arrangement where, at
the time the union received notice, the subcontracting agreement re-
mained executory, pending union negotiations).
110 See, e.g., Chippewa Motor Freight, 261 NLRB 455, 460 (1982),
where the judge reasoned that since the employer “was not required to
bargain about the decision to close, it was not required to give notice
before the decision was made,” and the employer was found to have
satisfied its effects-bargaining obligation by giving the union notice
prior to implementation. See also Willamette Tug & Barge Co., 300
NLRB 282, 282–283 (1990) (“[T]he employer’s duty [is] to give pre-
implementation notice to the union to allow time for effects bargain-
ing.”); Compact Video Services, 319 NLRB 131, 142 (1995) (effects-
bargaining violation where employer “failed to give the Union pre-
implementation notice and an opportunity to conduct meaningful
preimplementation bargaining over the effects”), enfd. 121 F.3d 478
(9th Cir. 1997); Penntech Papers, Inc. v. NLRB, 706 F.2d 18, 27 (1st
Cir. 1983) (“[N]otice to the unions . . . of the decision to terminate . . .
operations that very same day did not afford the unions an adequate
opportunity to bargain over the effects of that decision upon the em-
ployees.”), enfg. 263 NLRB 264 (1982).
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD32
cur “in a meaningful manner and at a meaningful
time.”111
The discipline-bargaining requirements announced to-
day substitute mayhem for these longstanding and well-
reasoned principles. My colleagues create a decision-
bargaining obligation regarding discipline, except they
cannot require discipline bargaining before the employer
makes the disciplinary decision because the Board in
Weingarten conceded that a “duty to bargain does not
arise prior to the employer’s decision to impose disci-
pline.”112 Consequently, the Board majority requires
discipline bargaining after the employer has made the
“decision” to impose discipline, and they even permit the
employer to implement the discipline after some unde-
fined period of discipline bargaining, provided that disci-
pline bargaining continues thereafter.113 Yet the employ-
er—after deciding to impose discipline and after imple-
menting the discipline—must still bargain in good faith
about “alternative courses of action” and the “possibility
of rescinding” the discipline.
Never, in the history of our statute, has the Board in-
terpreted Section 8(a)(5) to impose such self-
contradictory obligations on any party. This is precisely
what the Supreme Court in First National Maintenance
denounced as unreasonable: “If an employer engaged in
some discussion, but did not yield to the union’s de-
mands, the Board might conclude that the employer had
engaged in ‘surface bargaining,’ a violation of its good
faith.”114
4. The majority’s new discipline-bargaining standards
are fundamentally inconsistent with the Board’s “clear
and unmistakable waiver” standard
Another fundamental inconsistency between the ma-
jority’s discipline-bar and discipline-bargaining obliga-
tions and settled law springs from the fact that these new
requirements become inapplicable whenever the employ-
er has entered into “an agreement with the union provid-
ing for a process, such as a grievance-arbitration system,
to resolve such disputes.”115 Indeed, my colleagues refer

111 First National Maintenance, 452 U.S. at 682.
112 NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc., Brief for the Board, 1974 WL
186290 (U.S.) (emphasis added).
113 I do not contend that the problem here is that my colleagues
should be requiring discipline bargaining at an earlier point in time,
before an employer decides to impose discipline. The Board correctly
recognized in Weingarten that the Act does not impose any “duty to
bargain . . . prior to the employer’s decision to impose discipline.”
NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc., Brief for the Board, 1974 WL 186290
(U.S.). Rather, I believe the timing of the employer’s discipline-
bargaining duty as constructed by my colleagues adds to the considera-
tions that render unreasonable their interpretation of Sec. 8(a)(5) in this
case.
114 452 U.S. at 685.
115 Majority opinion, slip op. at 1.
to this as a “safe harbor”116 that extinguishes the employ-
er’s discipline-bargaining duty, which Section 8(a)(5)
supposedly imposes just like the duty to bargain over
“layoffs, wage changes, and other changes in core terms
or conditions of employment.”117
In every other context, the Board has applied a de-
manding “clear and unmistakable waiver” standard when
evaluating whether contract provisions obviate the statu-
tory duty to bargain imposed by Section 8(a)(5).118 The
Board has stated that such a waiver “‘requires bargaining
partners to unequivocally and specifically express their
mutual intention to permit unilateral employer action
with respect to a particular employment term, notwith-
standing the statutory duty to bargain that would other-
wise apply,’”119 with additional requirements that con-
tract language must be “‘sufficiently specific’”120 and a
waiver will not be “lightly inferred.”121
For the reasons noted above, I do not believe the Board
can appropriately interpret Section 8(a)(5) to impose my
colleagues’ new discipline-bar and discipline-bargaining
obligations on employers.122 However, the Board has
consistently rejected arguments that Section 8(a)(5) obli-
gations are automatically extinguished based on the ex-
istence, applicability, or non-applicability of a “griev-
ance-arbitration system” that resolves “disputes.”123

116 Id., slip op. at 9 fn. 22.
117 Id., slip op. at 5.
118 See fn. 13, supra. The Board has insisted on its “clear and unmis-
takable waiver” standard, even though some courts of appeals have
expressed disagreement with this standard in favor of a “contract cov-
erage” standard where the language of the collective-bargaining agree-
ment demonstrates that the parties have already bargained and reached
agreement regarding a subject covered by the agreement.
119 Graymont PA, Inc., 364 NLRB No. 37, slip op. at 2 (2016) (quot-
ing Provena St. Joseph Medical Center, 350 NLRB at 811).
120 Id. (quoting Johnson-Bateman Co., 295 NLRB 180, 189 (1989)).
121 Id., slip op. at 25 (citing Metropolitan Edison Co. v. NLRB, 460
U.S. 693, 708 (1983)).
122 Therefore, I do not contend these requirements would be appro-
priate if the majority applied a stricter “waiver” standard.
123 See, e.g., Unit Drop Forge Division Eaton, Yale & Towne Inc.,
171 NLRB 600, 601 (1968) (“[T]he mere existence of contractual
grievance and arbitration procedures will not by itself warrant a finding
that the union waived its right to bargain on changes planned by the
employer.”), enfd. 412 F.2d 108 (7th Cir. 1969); Dresser Industrial
Valve & Instrument Division, 178 NLRB 317, 322 (1969) (same);
Omaha World-Herald, 357 NLRB 1870, 1871 (2011) (“[T]he mere
exclusion of a subject from a contractual grievance/arbitration system
does not constitute a clear and unmistakable waiver of a union’s right to
bargain concerning the subject.”) (footnote omitted); Fawcett Printing
Corp., 201 NLRB 964, 972 (1973) (“[B]argaining representative’s
agreement to an arbitration clause does not constitute a waiver of its
statutory right to information.”); Bonnell/Tredegar Industries, Inc., 313
NLRB 789, 791 (1994) (no clear and unmistakable waiver based on
“exclusion of certain benefit provisions from the grievance-arbitration
procedure”), enfd. 46 F.3d 339 (4th Cir. 1995); New York University,
363 NLRB No. 48, slip op. at 6 fn. 4 (2015) (“[C]ontract provision
stating that the Union may not file a grievance or arbitrate with respect
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 33
Moreover, in Babcock & Wilcox Construction Co.,124 the
Board majority announced we will not defer to arbitra-
tion awards that merely resolve the issue of “cause” un-
less the arbitrators also decide “statutory” issues.125
In other words, the Board has traditionally maintained
that grievance arbitration is not a “clear and unmistaka-
ble” waiver of statutory rights. Yet, in today’s decision,
the Board majority states that an “interim” agreement
providing for grievance arbitration creates a “safe har-
bor” that extinguishes the new duty to engage in “disci-
pline-bargaining.”126 Furthermore, if one examines what
happens after grievance-arbitration occurs pursuant to an
“interim” agreement that requires “cause” for discipline,
Babcock holds that the Board will not defer to arbitration
awards that merely address the issue of “cause,” because
the Board in Babcock held that “cause” determinations
involve “excessive risk that . . . an arbitrator has not ade-
quately considered the statutory issue.”127 This means
one of two things: (a) employers who engage in griev-
ance arbitration under the “interim” agreement must also
explicitly authorize the arbitrator to decide “statutory”
issues (which, seemingly, would defeat the purpose of
having a “safe harbor”); or (b) this is another area where
discipline bargaining will be different from other statuto-
ry obligations.

to job descriptions does not establish a waiver of its right to bargain the
effects of a job description’s change.”).
124 361 NLRB No. 132 (2014).
125 Id., slip op. at 2. I dissented in relevant part from the majority’s
decision in Babcock, as did former Member Johnson. See Babcock,
slip op. at 14–24 (Member Miscimarra, concurring in part and dissent-
ing in part); id., slip op. at 24–36 (Member Johnson, concurring in part
and dissenting in part).
126 The majority’s opinion is, astonishingly, devoid of detail regard-
ing the precise type of “interim” agreement that would extinguish dis-
cipline-bargaining obligations. The majority merely states that the
“interim” agreement must involve discipline and permit “grievance[s]
and, potentially, arbitration,” and this would waive the union’s bargain-
ing rights. This sharply contrasts with the type of scrutiny the Board
applies in every other situation involving the waiver of bargaining
rights. I strongly suspect the majority is requiring more onerous con-
cessions than their opinion might suggest at first glance. Most reveal-
ing is the majority’s requirement that the agreement involve a “process,
such as a grievance-arbitration system” that would “resolve” disputes
regarding discipline. Majority opinion, slip op. at 1 (emphasis added).
To “resolve” disputes, the majority may require more than a “process”
for challenging discipline, it appears they would require some type of
final and binding resolution, such as arbitration. Cf. LMRA Sec.
203(d) (quoted in fn. 48 supra). Moreover, it is difficult to envision
how final and binding arbitration could “resolve” a discipline dispute
unless a contractual standard existed against which the propriety of
discipline should be measured, such as “cause.” See fn. 128 infra.
Finally, under the Board’s Babcock decision, supra fn. 124, the Board
will not defer to an arbitration award, after it issues, even if the CBA
states it is “final and binding,” unless the parties have also explicitly
authorized the arbitrator to resolve “statutory” issues. Id.
127 Babcock, supra fn. 124, slip op. at 2.
In these respects as well, the new requirements an-
nounced today are inconsistent with existing legal stand-
ards.
5. Section 10(c) prohibits the Board majority’s new re-
quirements when “cause” exists for an employee’s
suspension or discharge
Section 10(c) of the Act states, in relevant part: “No
order of the Board shall require the reinstatement of any
individual as an employee who has been suspended or
discharged, or the payment to him of any backpay, if
such individual was suspended or discharged for cause.”
My colleagues impose the new discipline-bar and dis-
cipline-bargaining requirements on employers, even
when “cause” exists for an employee’s suspension or
discharge. However, if an employer violates these new
requirements, the employer in Board compliance pro-
ceedings (which generally occur only after years of liti-
gation) may attempt to establish the existence of “cause,”
which, if proven, will reduce or eliminate the employer’s
backpay liability and/or preclude reinstatement.
Significantly, the concept of “cause” has been given a
common sense meaning by arbitrators and practitioners
throughout the Act’s 80-year history.128 However, my
colleagues create their own complex, multiple-stage def-
inition, which has no basis in the Act or its legislative

128 The requirement of “cause” has nearly universal acceptance in
most collective-bargaining agreements as a fundamental limitation on
an employer’s authority to discipline or discharge employees. Over
ninety percent of all collective-bargaining agreements include an ex-
plicit “just cause” provision for discipline. See Bureau of National
Affairs, Basic Patterns in Union Contracts (BNA, 14th ed. 1995). Just
cause provisions have been called “an obvious illustration” of the fact
that many provisions in collective-bargaining agreements “must be
expressed in general and flexible terms.” Archibald Cox, Reflections
Upon Labor Arbitration, 72 Harv. L. Rev. 1482, 1491 (1959).
The meaning of “cause” in collective-bargaining agreements was
explained nearly 60 years ago in Worthington Corp., 24 Lab. Arb.
(BNA) 1, 6–7 (McGoldrick, 1955):
[I]t is common to include the right to suspend and discharge for “just
cause,” “proper cause,” “obvious cause,” or quite commonly simply
for “cause.” There is no significant difference between these various
phrases. These exclude discharge for mere whim or caprice. They
are, obviously, intended to include those things for which employees
have traditionally been fired. They include the traditional causes of
discharge in the particular trade or industry, the practices which devel-
op in the day-to-day relations of management and labor and most re-
cently they include the decisions of courts and arbitrators. . . . Where
they are not expressed in posted rules, they may very well be implied,
provided they are applied in a uniform, non-discriminatory manner.
Numerous other cases confirm that different formulations of “cause” re-
quirements are generally regarded as identical. See, e.g., Alan Miles Ruben,
ed., Elkouri & Elkouri, How Arbitration Works 932 fn. 37 (6th ed. 2003)
(collecting decisions “finding no significant difference between these
terms”).
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD34
history, and my colleagues deem the employer a
“wrongdoer” who, therefore, will bear the burden of
proof.129 Here is how the new, multiple-stage “cause”
definition works:
 Cause Stage 1. The employer must first show
that (1) “the employee engaged in miscon-
duct” and (2) “the misconduct was the reason
for the suspension or discharge.”130
 Cause Stage 2. The General Counsel and the
charging party may each “contest the re-
spondent’s showing” and may also seek to
show “there are mitigating circumstances” or
“the respondent has not imposed similar dis-
cipline on other employees for similar mis-
conduct.”131
 Cause Stage 3. If the General Counsel or
charging party “make such a showing” (see
above), the employer “must show that it
would nevertheless have imposed the same
discipline.”132
 All Stages. My colleagues “emphasize” that
the employer “bears the burden of persuasion
in this analytical framework” because (i) the
Board’s “standard compliance procedures . . .
impose the burden of proof on the party con-
tending that an employee should be denied re-
instatement or that the employee’s backpay
should be reduced or denied”; and (ii) it is an
“established principle” that “the wrongdoer
bears the burden of uncertainty created by its
wrongful conduct.”133
The “cause” language in Section 10(c) was added as
part of the Labor Management Relations Act (LMRA)
amendments to the NLRA that were adopted in 1947.134
During the Senate debates on the LMRA, Senator Taft—
the legislation’s principal sponsor in the Senate—
commented on the “cause” language set forth in Section
10(c) and stated: “If a man is discharged for cause, he
cannot be reinstated. If he is discharged for union activi-
ty, he must be reinstated.”135
The legislative history indicates that the Board was
constrained to accept and apply a “cause” standard in all
discharge and suspension cases. Thus, the Conference

129 Majority opinion, slip op. at 15 fn. 41.
130 Id., slip op. at 15.
131 Id.
132 Id.
133 Id., slip op. at 15 fn. 41.
134 See, e.g., Labor Management Relations Act (Taft-Hartley Act or
LMRA), 61 Stat. 136 (1947), 29 U.S.C. §§ 141 et seq.
135 93 Cong. Rec. 6677 (daily ed. June 6, 1947) (statement of Sen.
Taft), reprinted in 2 NLRB, Legislative History of the Labor Manage-
ment Relations Act, 1947 (hereinafter LMRA Hist.) at 1593.
Report, commenting on House changes adopted by the
Conference Committee, stated:
[I]n section 10(c) of the amended act, as proposed in
the conference agreement, it is specifically provided
that no order of the Board shall require the reinstate-
ment of any individual or the payment to him of any
back pay if such individual was suspended or dis-
charged for cause, and this, of course, applies with
equal force whether or not the acts constituting the
cause for discharge were committed in connection with
a concerted activity. . . . Under existing principles of
law developed by the courts and recently applied by
the Board, employees who engage in violence, mass
picketing, unfair labor practices, contract violations, or
other improper conduct, or who force the employer to
violate the law, do not have any immunity under the
act and are subject to discharge without right of re-
instatement. The right of the employer to discharge an
employee for any such reason is protected in specific
terms in section 10(c).136
The report accompanying the House bill—H.R. 3020, 80th
Cong. (1947)—likewise indicated that the “cause” standard
would be binding on the Board in all suspension and dis-
charge cases:
A third change forbids the Board to reinstate an indi-
vidual unless the weight of the evidence shows that the
individual was not suspended or discharged for cause.
In the past, the Board, admitting that an employee was
guilty of gross misconduct, nevertheless frequently re-
instated him, “inferring” that, because he was a mem-
ber or an official of a union, this, not his misconduct,
was the reason for his discharge. Matter of Wyman-
Gordon Company, 62 N.L.R.B. 561 (1945), is typical
of the Board’s attitude in such cases. . . . The Board
may not “infer” an improper motive when the evidence
shows cause for discipline or discharge.137
The “cause” language in Section 10(c) was not a minor
technical amendment of the Act. Rather, the Section
10(c) language was specifically referenced by President
Truman when he vetoed the LMRA,138 and by Senator

136 H.R. Rep. 80-510 at 39, 59 (1947), reprinted in 1 LMRA Hist.
543 (emphasis added).
137 H.R. Rep. 80-245 at 42 (1947), reprinted in 1 LMRA Hist. 333
(emphasis added).
138 President Truman’s veto message received in House argued that
the “cause” language would be controlling (therefore precluding re-
instatement or backpay) even if the evidence established that a suspen-
sion or discharge resulted from antiunion discrimination. Thus, Presi-
dent Truman’s veto message stated: “The bill would make it easier for
an employer to get rid of employees whom he wanted to discharge
because they exercised their right of self-organization guaranteed by
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 35
Taft in opposition to President Truman’s veto.139 Senator
Taft reiterated that the “cause” standard—which the
Board would be constrained to accept and apply—
involved a simple common sense inquiry, which was
whether an employee’s suspension or discharge resulted
from his or her misconduct:
The President says an employer can discharge a man
on the pretext of a slight infraction, even though his re-
al motive is to discriminate against the employee for
union activity. This is not so. The Board decides under
the new law, as under the former law, whether the man
was really discharged for union activity or for good
cause.140
Contrary to the majority’s decision, which imposes the
burden on the employer to prove the existence of
“cause,” Congress prohibited the Board from imposing
the burden of proof on any respondent to establish
“cause” for a suspension or discharge. Rather, Congress
placed the burden of proof on the Board’s General Coun-
sel to establish, by a preponderance of the evidence, that
an alleged unlawful suspension or discharge was not “for
cause.”141 To this effect, the legislation expressly stated
that the Board could not order reinstatement or backpay
“unless the weight of the evidence shows that the indi-
vidual was not suspended or discharged for cause.”142

the act. It would permit an employer to dismiss a man on the pretext of
a slight infraction of shop rules, even though his real motive was to
discriminate against this employee for union activity.” 93 Cong. Rec.
7501, reprinted in 1 LMRA Hist. 916 (veto message received in the
House).
139 The LMRA was enacted over President Truman’s veto when two-
thirds majorities in the House and Senate voted to override the Presi-
dent’s veto. 93 Cong. Rec. 7504 (June 20, 1947), reprinted in 2 LMRA
Hist. 922–923 (reflecting two-thirds majority vote in the House); 93
Cong. Rec. 7692 (June 23, 1947), reprinted in 2 LMRA Hist. 1656–
1657 (reflecting two-thirds majority vote in the Senate).
140 93 Cong. Rec. S A3233 (daily ed. June 21, 1947) (statement of
Sen. Taft).
141 The Supreme Court has reaffirmed the settled principle, stated
explicitly in Sec. 10(c), that the General Counsel has the burden of
proving, “upon the preponderance of the testimony,” the elements of an
unfair labor practice. See, e.g., NLRB v. Transportation Management
Corp., 462 U.S. 393, 401 (1983). In a mixed-motive case, where there
is evidence of both discrimination and “cause,” the General Counsel
bears the burden of showing by a preponderance of the evidence that a
suspension or discharge was motivated by animus against the employ-
ee’s union or other protected concerted activity. Although the Board
allocates to the employer the burden of proving its affirmative defense,
Wright Line, 251 NLRB 1083, 1088–1089 (1980) (subsequent history
omitted), the ultimate burden of proving a violation remains with the
General Counsel, id. at 1088 fn. 11. Regardless of intermediate bur-
dens, the General Counsel must satisfy his ultimate burden to prove a
violation of the Act. In such cases, it necessarily follows that the em-
ployee was not suspended or discharged for “cause.” See also fn. 143
below.
142 H.R. Rep. 80-245 at 42 (1947), reprinted in 1 LMRA Hist. 333.
This “weight of the evidence” language was eventually
deleted, but only because other language added to Sec-
tion 10(c) independently required that all Board determi-
nations be supported by a “preponderance” of the evi-
dence. See H.R. Rep. 80-510 at 55 (1947), reprinted in 1
LMRA Hist. 559 (“The conference agreement omits the
‘weight of evidence’ language, since the Board, under
the general provisions of section 10, must act on a pre-
ponderance of evidence . . .”).143
The “cause” language set forth in Section 10(c), com-
bined with the Act’s legislative history as described
above, reveals the existence of several additional prob-
lems with my colleagues’ new requirements.
First, Section 10(c) imposes an unyielding constraint
on the Board’s authority to prevent or reverse any sus-
pension or discharge for which “cause” exists.144 There-

143 As noted in the text, Sec. 10(c) and its legislative history show
that the General Counsel bears the burden of proof that disputed disci-
pline violates the Act, which also entails establishing there was no
“cause” for the discipline in question. The decision in Transportation
Management does not dictate otherwise. Indeed, the Supreme Court in
Transportation Management held that Sec. 10(c)’s “preponderance of
the testimony” language meant the General Counsel has the burden
“throughout the proceedings” of proving “the elements of an unfair
labor practice,” 462 U.S. at 401, and the Court stated that the “prepon-
derance of the testimony” requirement was “closely related” to Sec.
10(c)’s provision “that no order of the Board reinstate or compensate
any employee who was fired for cause,” id. at 401 fn. 6 (emphasis
added). Transportation Management dealt with the employer’s inter-
mediate burden in Wright Line “mixed-motive” cases, where the em-
ployer asserts an “affirmative defense” by “showing what his actions
would have been regardless of his forbidden motivation.” Id. at 401;
see also Wright Line, 251 NLRB at 1088 fn. 11 (“The shifting burden
merely requires the employer to make out what is actually an affirma-
tive defense.”). Not only did the Supreme Court hold that the Wright
Line mixed-motive standard “does not change or add to the elements of
the unfair labor practice that the General Counsel has the burden of
proving under § 10(c),” 462 U.S. at 401 (emphasis added; footnote
omitted), the Court held that this mixed-motive issue was unrelated to
the “cause” language set forth in Sec. 10(c), id. at 401 fn. 6 (“the draft-
ers of § 10(c) were not thinking of the mixed-motive case”). Therefore,
Sec. 10(c) and its legislative history indicate that Congress intended the
General Counsel would bear the burden of proving any alleged viola-
tion, including the statutory requirement that the employee in question
was not disciplined for “cause,” and the Supreme Court regarded this as
separate and distinct from whatever burdens the Board devised or ap-
plied in mixed-motive cases. Id.; see also id. at 399 fn. 4 (“[N]owhere
in the legislative history is reference made to any of the mixed-motive
cases decided by the Board or by the Courts.”).
144 The Supreme Court has long recognized that the rights set forth in
the Act are not absolute, and the Board must consider the right of em-
ployers to maintain production and discipline:
These cases bring here for review the action of the National Labor Re-
lations Board in working out an adjustment between the undisputed
right of self-organization assured to employees under the Wagner Act
and the equally undisputed right of employers to maintain discipline in
their establishments. Like so many others, these rights are not unlim-
ited in the sense that they can be exercised without regard to any duty
which the existence of rights in others may place upon employer or
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD36
fore, the Act’s plain language shows that when “cause”
exists, the Board has no authority—none—to invalidate a
suspension or discharge merely because the employer
failed to satisfy some Board-created discipline-bar or
discipline-bargaining requirement.145
Second, the Act’s legislative history reveals that no-
body believed the Board had any role to play in disci-
pline cases, except where discipline allegedly involved
unlawful motivation:
 As noted previously, Senator Taft stated that,
based on the “cause” language added to Sec-
tion 10(c), an employee could not be reinstat-
ed if he was “discharged for cause,” but if he
was “discharged for union activity, he must
be reinstated.”146
 The Conference Report stated that the
“cause” language added to Section 10(c) pre-
cluded backpay and reinstatement “whether
or not the acts constituting the cause for dis-

employee. Opportunity to organize and proper discipline are both es-
sential elements in a balanced society.
Republic Aviation Corp. v. NLRB, 324 U.S. 793, 797–798 (1945). The
Board has likewise long respected employers’ right to discipline its work-
force: “The Act’s grant of rights to employees to engage in organizing
activities, to belong to a union, and to engage in collective bargaining was
not intended to deprive management of its right to manage its business and
to maintain production and discipline.” Star-News Newspapers, Inc., 183
NLRB 1003, 1004 (1970).
145 See Anheuser-Busch, Inc., 351 NLRB 644 (2007) (Sec. 10(c) pre-
cluded the Board from ordering reinstatement of or backpay to employ-
ees suspended or discharged for misconduct, even though the employer
violated Sec. 8(a)(5) by failing to bargain over the installation of hidden
surveillance cameras that revealed the employees’ misconduct), review
denied sub nom. Brewers & Maltsters Local 6 v. NLRB, 303 Fed.
Appx. 899 (D.C. Cir. 2008); Taracorp Industries, 273 NLRB 221
(1984) (Sec. 10(c) precluded the Board from ordering reinstatement of
or backpay to employee discharged for insubordination, even though
the employer unlawfully denied the employee Weingarten representa-
tion during a disciplinary interview that led to the employee’s dis-
charge).
I believe there is no merit in the majority’s suggestion that An-
heuser-Busch and Taracorp are distinguishable here, and the Board has
authority to order reinstatement or backpay based on a failure to satisfy
the majority’s discipline-bargaining requirement, even if employees
were discharged for cause. My colleagues reason that, in Anheuser-
Busch and Taracorp, the Board found there was an insufficient nexus
between the unfair labor practice and the reason for the discharge
(meaning the reason for discharge could be regarded as relatively dis-
tinct from the employer’s unfair labor practice), and the majority main-
tains that “a much stronger nexus” exists when an employer fails to
engage in discipline bargaining regarding an employee’s discharge or
suspension for cause. In all of these cases—including the situation
where an employer fails to engage in discipline bargaining when cause
exists for an employee’s discharge or suspension—there may be an
independent reason for the discipline imposed by the employer that
constitutes “cause.” If so, as stated in Sec. 10(c), the Board is divested
of authority to order reinstatement or backpay.
146 Supra fn. 135 (emphasis added).
charge were committed in connection with a
concerted activity.”147
 The House report expressed disagreement
with a decision in which the Board ordered
reinstatement based on antiunion discrimina-
tion,148 described as one where the Board in-
ferred that the employee’s union affiliation
“was the reason for his discharge,” and the
report stated that the “cause” language would
prevent the Board from similarly inferring
“an improper motive” in cases where cause
existed.149
 President Truman’s veto message complained
about the “cause” language added to Section
10(c), which he stated would permit an em-
ployer to discharge an employee using a “pre-
text” when, in fact, the “real motive was to
discriminate against [the] employee for union
activity.”150
 In opposition to President Truman’s veto,
Senator Taft disagreed that the “cause” lan-
guage would permit employers to discharge
employees where the “real motive” was “to
discriminate against the employee for union
activity.”151
Nothing in the Act’s legislative history suggests that Con-
gress intended to require bargaining over disciplinary deci-
sions before they could be imposed. The Board had never
required bargaining over disciplinary decisions before they
could be implemented. Indeed, the Board did not create
such an obligation until roughly 80 years after the Act’s
adoption, 70 years following enactment of the Taft-Hartley
amendments, and 40 years after the Supreme Court and the
Board addressed discipline-related bargaining issues in
Weingarten.
Third, I strongly disagree with the manner in which
my colleagues have allocated the burden of proof on the
issue of “cause,” which is directly contrary to what the
Act requires, as reflected in Section 10(c) and its legisla-
tive history. As noted previously, Section 10(c) squarely
places the burden of proof on the General Counsel re-
garding all elements of each violation, including remedi-
al issues, which includes the burden to prove the absence
of “cause” in every suspension and discharge case where
backpay or reinstatement is sought. See supra fns. 141–
143 and accompanying text. Given that our statute ex-
pressly states the Board cannot order backpay or re-

147 Supra fn. 136 (emphasis added).
148 Wyman-Gordon Co., 62 NLRB 561 (1945).
149 Supra fn. 137 (emphasis added).
150 Supra fn. 138 (emphasis added).
151 Supra fn. 140 (emphasis added).
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 37
instatement whenever “cause” supports an employee’s
discharge or suspension, it hardly instills confidence in
the Agency’s objectivity when (i) the Board creates new
obligations that especially focus on discharge and sus-
pension decisions; (ii) the new obligations are deemed
applicable even when “cause” exists; (iii) employers are
denied the right to litigate the “cause” issue until the
compliance stage, which is the very last stop of the
Board’s lengthy, multiple-year litigation train; and (iv)
my colleagues make the employer bear the burden of
proof regarding “cause,” contrary to Section 10(c) and its
legislative history, because the employer in compliance
proceedings is considered a “wrongdoer.”
Fourth, nothing about these new obligations is simple,
but the majority’s multiple-stage formula for defining
and adjudicating the issue of “cause” is a gross distortion
of the “cause” concept. As noted previously, “cause” has
been universally praised, in large part, because it is “an
obvious illustration” of the fact that many labor relations
concepts “must be expressed in general and flexible
terms.”152 It has been called “the most important princi-
ple of labor relations in the unionized firm.”153 Nobody
would reasonably believe that my colleagues’ new mul-
tiple-stage “cause” definition improves the “cause”
standard, which is one of the most widely applied terms
in the history of our statute. Indeed, the “cause” lan-
guage in Section 10(c) was enacted by Congress to pre-
vent the Board from attempting to “infer” some type of
impropriety when “cause” exists.154 If an employer sus-
pends or discharges an employee based on his or her ac-
tions or inaction, separate from union activities or other
protected conduct, then “cause” exists, and this should
end the Board’s inquiry. This was the Board’s holding in
Anheuser-Busch and Taracorp, where the Board stated:
Cause, in the context of Sec. 10(c), effectively means
the absence of a prohibited reason. For under our Act:
“Management can discharge for good cause, bad cause,
or no cause at all. It has, as the master of its own busi-
ness affairs, complete freedom with but one specific,
definite qualification: it may not discharge when the re-
al motivating purpose is to do that which [the Act] for-
bids.”155

152 Archibald Cox, Reflections Upon Labor Arbitration, 72 Harv. L.
Rev. 1482, 1491 (1959).
153 Robert I. Abrams & Dennis R. Nolan, Toward a Theory of “Just
Cause” in Employee Discipline Cases, 1985 Duke L.J. 594, 594; see
also Babcock, 361 NLRB No. 132, slip op. at 16 (Member Miscimarra,
concurring in part and dissenting in part).
154 See text accompanying fn. 136 supra.
155 Anheuser-Busch, 351 NLRB at 647; Taracorp, 273 NLRB at 222
fn. 8 (quoting NLRB v. Columbus Marble Works, 233 F.2d 406, 413
(5th Cir. 1956)).
Fifth, I believe it is improper and unfair to impose the
new discipline-bar and discipline-bargaining require-
ments in all cases, including those where “cause” exists
for a discharge or suspension, with my colleagues rele-
gating inquiries regarding the existence of “cause” to
compliance proceedings. As a practical matter, this
means my colleagues completely disregard the “cause”
limitation in the sense that they require all employers to
satisfy these new requirements in all discipline cases
(subject to the complicated qualifications and exceptions
formulated by the Board majority and discussed above).
And even in cases where “cause” exists, the employer
will face many years of NLRB litigation, possibly in-
cluding court appeals regarding the issue of liability,
with the employer being unable even to raise the issue of
“cause” until the very last stage of the NLRB litigation
process, when details regarding backpay and other reme-
dial issues are litigated.
My colleagues apparently consign the issue of “cause”
to compliance proceedings, rather than having “cause”
addressed as a threshold issue during the liability stage,
because they view the “cause” language in Section 10(c)
as dealing with what the Board may “order,” which
prompts my colleagues not to permit this to be addressed
in earlier liability proceedings. For several reasons, I
respectfully disagree, and I believe the issue of “cause”
should be resolved at the liability stage.
For one thing, every sentence in Section 10(c), includ-
ing the “cause” language, addresses matters relevant to
the Board’s case-handling in liability proceedings, which
also happens to be when the Board formulates its reme-
dial orders (including those ordering reinstatement and/or
backpay).156 For example, sentence 3 states: “If upon the

156 Sec. 10(c) in its entirety, with bracketed numbers added to each
sentence for ease of reference, states as follows:
[1] The testimony taken by such member, agent, or agency, or the
Board shall be reduced to writing and filed with the Board. [2]
Thereafter, in its discretion, the Board upon notice may take further
testimony or hear argument. [3] If upon the preponderance of the
testimony taken the Board shall be of the opinion that any person
named in the complaint has engaged in or is engaging in any such
unfair labor practice, then the Board shall state its findings of fact
and shall issue and cause to be served on such person an order re-
quiring such person to cease and desist from such unfair labor prac-
tice, and to take such affirmative action including reinstatement of
employees with or without backpay, as will effectuate the policies of
this Act: [4] Provided, That where an order directs reinstatement of
an employee, backpay may be required of the employer or labor or-
ganization, as the case may be, responsible for the discrimination
suffered by him: [5] And provided further, That in determining
whether a complaint shall issue alleging a violation of section
8(a)(1) or section 8(a)(2), and in deciding such cases, the same reg-
ulations and rules of decision shall apply irrespective of whether or
not the labor organization affected is affiliated with a labor organi-
zation national or international in scope. Such order may further re-
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD38
preponderance of the testimony taken the Board shall be
of the opinion that any person named in the complaint
has engaged in or is engaging in any such unfair labor
practice, then the Board shall state its findings of fact
and shall issue and cause to be served on such person an
order requiring such person to cease and desist from
such unfair labor practice, and to take such affirmative
action including reinstatement of employees with or
without backpay, as will effectuate the policies of this
Act.” Everything contained in the foregoing sentence
describes what the Board does at the liability or merits
stage of an unfair labor practice case, which is when the
Board issues its “cease and desist” order including any
requirement of “reinstatement . . . with or without
backpay.” Similarly, sentence 6 (which immediately
precedes the “cause” language in Section 10(c)) provides
for the Board to issue orders dismissing complaints
found to lack merit, which the Board would only address
at the liability stage. Together, sentences 3, 6 and 7
state:
[3] If upon the preponderance of the testimony taken
the Board shall be of the opinion that any person
named in the complaint has engaged in or is engaging
in any such unfair labor practice, then the Board shall
state its findings of fact and shall issue and cause to be

quire such person to make reports from time to time showing the ex-
tent to which it has complied with the order. [6] If upon the prepon-
derance of the testimony taken the Board shall not be of the opinion
that the person named in the complaint has engaged in or is engag-
ing in any such unfair labor practice, then the Board shall state its
findings of fact and shall issue an order dismissing the said com-
plaint. [7] No order of the Board shall require the reinstatement of
any individual as an employee who has been suspended or dis-
charged, or the payment to him of any backpay, if such individual
was suspended or discharged for cause. [8] In case the evidence is
presented before a member of the Board, or before an administrative
law judge or judges thereof, such member, or such judge or judges,
as the case may be, shall issue and cause to be served on the parties
to the proceeding a proposed report, together with a recommended
order, which shall be filed with the Board, and if no exceptions are
filed within twenty days after service thereof upon such parties, or
within such further period as the Board may authorize, such recom-
mended order shall become the order of the Board and become af-
fective as therein prescribed.
(Emphasis added; bracketed sentence numbers added for ease of reference.)
As the above quotation makes clear, sentence 1 starts by discussing the
“testimony taken,” which applies to liability proceedings. Sentence 3 sets
forth the “preponderance of the testimony” standard, which places the bur-
den of proof on the General Counsel, and addresses those cases where the
Board finds that an “unfair labor practice” has occurred, in which case the
Board shall order affirmative action “including reinstatement of employees
with or without backpay.” Everything addressed in sentence 3—including
the Board’s order requiring reinstatement and/or backpay—is likewise
addressed when the Board decides liability at the merits stage of the unfair
labor practice case. In fact, no sentence in Section 10(c) deals only with
Board compliance proceedings.
served on such person an order requiring such person
to cease and desist from such unfair labor practice, and
to take such affirmative action including reinstatement
of employees with or without backpay. . . . [6] If upon
the preponderance of the testimony taken the Board
shall not be of the opinion that the person named in the
complaint has engaged in or is engaging in any such
unfair labor practice, then the Board shall state its find-
ings of fact and shall issue an order dismissing the said
complaint. [7] No order of the Board shall require the
reinstatement of any individual as an employee who
has been suspended or discharged, or the payment to
him of any backpay, if such individual was suspended
or discharged for cause.157
Each one of the above-quoted sentences, along with the rest
of Section 10(c), is relevant to what the Board addresses at
the liability stage. In fact, no sentence or clause within Sec-
tion 10(c) deals only with Board compliance proceedings.
The Supreme Court has also rejected the suggestion
that the Act draws a sharp distinction between liability
and remedial issues. For example, Section 8(d) states
that the duty to bargain collectively “does not compel
either party to agree to a proposal or require the making
of a concession.” In H.K. Porter Co. v. NLRB,158 the
Board had imposed a dues-checkoff clause on an em-
ployer, which the court of appeals upheld because, in the
court’s view, Section 8(d) related only to liability (i.e., “a
determination of whether a . . . violation has occurred”),
and it did not limit the Board’s remedial power (i.e., “the
scope of the remedy which may be necessary to cure
violations which have already occurred”).159 The Su-
preme Court rejected this analysis, stating: “We may
agree . . . that as a matter of strict, literal interpretation
that section [8(d)] refers only to deciding when a viola-
tion has occurred, but we do not agree that that observa-
tion justifies the conclusion that the remedial powers of
the Board are not also limited by the same considera-
tions. . . .”160
In short, the “cause” language in Section 10(c) limits
what may be contained in a Board order regarding re-
instatement and backpay, which the Board formulates
and issues at the liability stage. Moreover, even if one
regards Section 10(c) as relating only to the Board’s re-
medial authority, rather than liability, H. K. Porter teach-
es that “the same considerations” may relate to both.
This is reinforced, as noted above, by Section 10(c)’s

157 Sec. 10(c) (emphasis added; bracketed sentence numbers added
for ease of reference).
158 397 U.S. at 99.
159 Id. at 107.
160 Id. at 107 (emphasis added).
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 39
legislative history, which shows that Congress enacted
the “cause” language in Section 10(c) to constrain the
Board’s liability determinations and the Board’s remedi-
al authority. In this regard, my colleagues themselves
refer to Section 10(c) as requiring the Board to determine
“whether the discipline was ‘for cause’” (which, accord-
ing to my colleagues, involves the question of whether a
suspension or discharge occurred “because of the mis-
conduct”).161 This underscores the need for the Board to
address the “cause” issue at the liability stage where such
questions are addressed.162
Finally, keep in mind that my colleagues’ discipline-
bar and discipline-bargaining requirements apply to sus-
pensions and discharges even if they are nondiscrimina-
tory and consistent with what the employer has done in
the past. For this reason, it is predictable that some sig-
nificant number of the suspensions and discharges af-
fected by today’s decision will, in fact, be supported by
“cause.” I believe it is contrary to the intention of Con-
gress, as reflected in the “cause” language in Section
10(c), for the majority to make their new requirements
applicable to all discharges and suspensions, while leav-
ing the issue of “cause” unaddressed until the very end of
the Board’s lengthy litigation process. In my view, the
majority needlessly imposes onerous burdens on large
numbers of employers, unions and employees, and on the
Board itself, by applying the new bargaining require-
ments to all discharges and suspensions, even where
“cause” exists, resulting in many years of litigation in
hundreds or thousands of cases, where parties will learn
only at the very end that the most important types of re-
lief—reinstatement and backpay—are unavailable.
6. The Board majority’s new requirements exceed the
Board’s 8(a)(5) authority as limited by section 8(d), as
well as the Board’s remedial authority
One of the cornerstone principles of the NLRA in rela-
tion to collective bargaining is that the Board is to act as
a neutral overseer of the bargaining process, without dic-
tating the terms that should be agreed to by the parties.

161 Majority opinion, slip op. at 14 fn. 35 (emphasis in original).
162 I disagree with any suggestion by my colleagues that the “cause”
language in Sec. 10(c) is nothing more than a restatement that discharg-
es or suspensions supported by “cause” are lawful when the Board
determines that they were motivated by “cause.” As noted in the text,
Sec. 10(c) and its legislative history clearly establish that Congress
regarded the existence of “cause” as an affirmative constraint on the
Board’s authority. If Sec. 10(c) merely means the Board should not
award backpay or reinstatement whenever it determines that discharges
and suspensions are lawful, there would have been no need for Con-
gress to add the “cause” language to Sec. 10(c), nor would the “cause”
language have given rise to the substantial controversy that resulted
from its inclusion in the Taft-Hartley amendments. See text accom-
panying fns. 138–140, supra.
This is set forth in Section 8(d) of the Act, which states
that the duty to bargain collectively “does not compel
either party to agree to a proposal or require the making
of a concession.”163 It is also clear that the Board’s au-
thority when fashioning relief, though broad, is strictly
limited to measures that are remedial and not punitive.
The Board is not “free to set up any system of penalties
which it would deem adequate” to “have the effect of
deterring persons from violating the Act.”164 Likewise,
the Board’s authority to devise remedies “does not go so
far as to confer a punitive jurisdiction enabling the Board
to inflict upon the employer any penalty it may choose
because he is engaged in unfair labor practices, even
though the Board be of the opinion that the policies of
the Act might be effectuated by such an order.”165 As the
Supreme Court stated in Republic Steel: “We do not
think that Congress intended to vest in the Board a virtu-
ally unlimited discretion to devise punitive measures, and
thus to prescribe penalties or fines which the Board may
think would effectuate the policies of the Act.”166
We do not write from a clean slate when it comes to
limitations on the Board’s remedial authority. As dis-
cussed above, the Supreme Court made one such limit
clear in H.K. Porter Co. v. NLRB,167 where the employer
was found to have violated Section 8(a)(5) by refusing to
bargain in good faith regarding a dues checkoff provi-
sion. The H.K. Porter case did not involve an ordinary
refusal to bargain. Rather, over a period exceeding 8
years, resulting in large part from “the skill of the com-
pany’s negotiators in taking advantage of every oppor-
tunity for delay,” the employer continually objected to
dues-checkoff “solely to frustrate the making of any col-
lective-bargaining agreement.”168 Ultimately, the
Board—with the approval of the court of appeals—
issued a remedial order “requiring the petitioner to
‘[g]rant to the Union a contract clause providing for the
checkoff of union dues.’”169
The court of appeals in H.K. Porter upheld the Board-
imposed contract provision based on a policy concern
“that workers’ rights to collective bargaining are to be

163 See also American National Insurance, supra fn. 16, 343 U.S. at
401–402 (the Act “is designed to promote industrial peace by encourag-
ing the making of voluntary agreements,” and it does not “regulate the
substantive terms . . . which are incorporated in an agreement.”); H.K.
Porter Co., supra fn. 16 (described in the text accompanying fns. 167–
175 infra).
164 Republic Steel Corp. v. NLRB, 311 U.S. at 12 (citing Consolidat-
ed Edison Co. v. NLRB, 305 U.S. at 235–236); NLRB v. Pennsylvania
Greyhound Lines, 303 U.S. at 267–268).
165 Consolidated Edison, 305 U.S. at 235–236.
166 311 U.S. at 11.
167 397 U.S. at 99.
168 Id. at 101.
169 Id. at 102 (citations omitted).
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD40
secured.”170 However, the Supreme Court disagreed, and
held that the Board exceeded its authority. The Supreme
Court stated that “the Act as presently drawn does not
contemplate that unions will always be secure and able to
achieve agreement even when their economic position is
weak.”171 The Court explained that “[t]he object of this
Act was not to allow governmental regulation of the
terms and conditions of employment,” and “it was never
intended that the Government would in such cases step
in, become a party to the negotiations and impose its own
views of a desirable settlement.”172 The Court quoted a
House report that explained the addition of Section 8(d)
as part of the Taft-Hartley amendments as follows:
Notwithstanding this language of the Court, the pre-
sent Board has gone very far, in the guise of determin-
ing whether or not employers had bargained in good
faith, in setting itself up as the judge of what conces-
sions an employer must make and of the proposals and
counterproposals that he may or may not make. . . .
[U]nless Congress writes into the law guides for the
Board to follow, the Board may attempt to carry this
process still further and seek to control more and more
the terms of collective-bargaining agreements.173
Regarding the effect of Section 8(d), the Supreme Court
held that “‘the Board may not, either directly or indirectly,
compel concessions or otherwise sit in judgment upon the
substantive terms of collective bargaining agreements.’”174
The Court concluded:
It is implicit in the entire structure of the Act that the
Board acts to oversee and referee the process of collec-
tive bargaining, leaving the results of the contest to the
bargaining strengths of the parties. . . . While the par-
ties’ freedom of contract is not absolute under the Act,
allowing the Board to compel agreement when the par-
ties themselves are unable to agree would violate the
fundamental premise on which the Act is based—
private bargaining under governmental supervision of
the procedure alone, without any official compulsion
over the actual terms of the contract.175

170 Id. at 108. Similarly, my colleagues in today’s decision state they
are imposing a discipline-bargaining obligation on employers because
permitting employers to impose discipline without bargaining “would
demonstrate to employees that the Act and the Board’s processes im-
plementing it are ineffectual, and would render the union . . . that repre-
sents the employees impotent.” Majority opinion, slip op. at 10.
171 397 U.S. at 109.
172 Id. at 103–104 (emphasis added).
173 Id. at 105–106 (emphasis added) (quoting H.R. Rep. No. 245,
80th Cong., 1st Sess., 19–20 (1947)).
174 Id. at 106 (quoting NLRB v. American National Insurance Co.,
343 U.S. at 404).
175 Id. at 107–108 (emphasis added).
The requirements created by my colleagues today have
troubling aspects that, in my view, appear to exceed the
Board’s authority when measured against the above
standards. In H.K. Porter, the employer had been found
to have persistently violated the Act, which prompted the
Board—with approval from the court of appeals—to
impose a contractual dues-checkoff provision on the em-
ployer. In various respects, the majority’s actions today
are more troubling.
 The employers affected by today’s decision
have not been found to have violated the Act
in any respect. And the majority creates new
discipline-bargaining requirements that have
never previously existed, that have no support
in the text of the Act, and that are contradict-
ed by existing precedent.
 The new requirements contradict a broad ar-
ray of existing doctrines, requiring discipline
bargaining when there has been no “change”
(within the meaning of Katz), and where the
duty to bargain over the discipline decision is
triggered after the employer makes the deci-
sion, which is unlike decision bargaining in
every other context (where decision bargain-
ing is required before the employer has made
the decision). Also, according to the majori-
ty, discipline bargaining must commence pri-
or to the implementation of discipline, and in
every other context such timing is associated
with effects bargaining, not decision bargain-
ing.
 The majority sets forth complex standards re-
garding when discipline bargaining must
commence, but provides no guidance whatso-
ever regarding when discipline may actually
be imposed because the majority dispenses
with the conventional requirement that parties
negotiate to overall impasse or agreement be-
fore taking action.
 Contrary to Section 10(c)—which precludes
reinstatement and backpay whenever a sus-
pension or discharge resulted from “cause,”
and where the General Counsel bears the bur-
den of proving the absence of “cause”—the
new discipline-bargaining requirements apply
to all suspensions and discharges, including
those that resulted from “cause,” and the ma-
jority creates a multiple-stage “cause” defini-
tion that employers cannot even address until
compliance proceedings following years of
Board litigation.
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 41
 The new requirements apply only to those
employers who exercise their right not to en-
ter into an “interim” agreement that, accord-
ing to the majority, must give unions a right
to challenge discipline in grievance arbitra-
tion.
My colleagues here construct statutory obligations in a
way that, literally, constitutes an offer that employers
cannot refuse: employers must adopt an up-front agree-
ment giving away three of the most important issues ad-
dressed in any set of contract negotiations (discipline,
grievances, and arbitration), or employers lose their right
to impose immediate discipline (except in very few cases
involving “exigent” circumstances, as defined by my
colleagues). Literally, the quid pro quo for such im-
portant concessions are the newly created “statutory”
obligations created by my colleagues.176 This leaves
little doubt that the Board is going “very far, in the guise
of determining whether or not employers had bargained
in good faith, in setting itself up as the judge of what
concessions an employer must make.”177 It appears
equally clear that the Board, at least “indirectly,” is sit-
ting “‘in judgment upon the substantive terms of collec-
tive bargaining agreements.’”178 Unquestionably, my
colleagues view an up-front “interim” agreement—
permitting “grievance and, potentially, arbitration” chal-
lenges over discipline—as a “desirable settlement.”179 In
fact, as noted previously, these particular substantive
issues (discipline, grievances, and arbitration) are typi-
cally only resolved in negotiations when parties finally
enter into “complete collective bargaining agree-
ments.”180
My colleagues obviously maintain “the opinion that
the policies of the Act might be effectuated” by the new

176 Although my colleagues disclaim any intention to impose up-
front “interim” agreements on employers encompassing discipline,
grievances, and arbitration, they concede that even if today’s decision
“were to have the effect of motivating employers to reach [such] inter-
im agreements, such motivation would be entirely consistent with the
policies of the Act.” The key difference here is that my colleagues
selectively impose a complicated array of never-previously-existing
obligations only on those employers who fail to enter into up-front
agreements over three subjects—discipline, grievances, and arbitra-
tion—contrary to the bargaining obligations imposed by the Act, which
encompass all mandatory subjects, and which disfavor single-issue
bargaining. There is no resemblance between such “interim” agree-
ments and conventional “management-rights” clauses that parties may
voluntarily enter into.
177 Id. at 105 (quoting H.R. Rep. No. 245, 80th Cong., 1st Sess., 19–
20 (1947).
178 Id. at 106 (quoting NLRB v. American National Insurance Co.,
343 U.S. at 404 ).
179 Id. at 104.
180 Majority opinion, slip op. at 9 fn. 22.
requirements being announced today.181 However, I be-
lieve we are undermining what the Supreme Court called
the “fundamental premise on which the Act is based,”
which is supposed to involve “private bargaining . . .
without any official compulsion over the actual terms of
the contract.”182
CONCLUSION
One cannot reasonably suggest that the duty to bar-
gain, and an employer’s right to impose discipline, were
minor or insignificant issues in 1935, when Congress
first adopted the NLRA; in 1947, when Congress adopt-
ed the Taft-Hartley amendments (including new limita-
tions on the Board’s authority, as expressed in Section
8(d) and Section 10(c) of the Act); in 1960, when the
Supreme Court addressed the importance of “cause” and
grievance arbitration in the Steelworkers Trilogy cases;
and in 1975, when the Board and the Supreme Court in
Weingarten reaffirmed that employers have no duty to
bargain before implementing discipline. Yet, my col-
leagues would have everyone believe that our statute has
always imposed an obligation to bargain before disci-
pline could be imposed, and Congress, the Supreme
Court, and the Board never had occasion to “clearly and
adequately” describe the existence of this obligation.183 I
believe this proposition is contrary to reason, logic, and
just about everything else associated with the Act. As
the Supreme Court stated in First National Maintenance,
“in establishing what issues must be submitted to the
process of bargaining, Congress had no expectation that
the elected union representative would become an equal
partner in the running of the business enterprise in which
the union’s members are employed.”184
For these reasons, I respectfully dissent from my col-
leagues’ adoption of these new requirements and from
the remedial principles they announce for application in
future cases, and I concur with my colleagues’ decision
not to apply these new requirements retroactively in the
instant case.
Dated, Washington, D.C. August 26, 2016

181 Consolidated Edison, 305 U.S. at 236. As noted previously, my
colleagues maintain that even if the new discipline-bargaining obliga-
tions “have the effect of motivating employers to reach interim agree-
ments” governing discipline, grievances and arbitration—separate and
apart from all other mandatory subjects of bargaining—this “would be
entirely consistent with the policies of the Act.” I respectfully disagree
for the reasons set forth in the text.
182 H.K. Porter, 397 U.S. at 108.
183 Majority’s opinion, slip op. at 1. My colleagues similarly state
that today’s decision is necessary to avoid “permanently freezing in
place a deficient understanding of the Act,” which somehow prevailed
for 8 decades among everyone familiar with our statute. Id., slip op. at
16.
184 452 U.S. at 676 (emphasis added).
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD42
______________________________________
Philip A. Miscimarra, Member
NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD
Lisa Friedheim-Weis and Brigid Garrity, Esqs., for the General
Counsel.
Eugene Boyle, Esq. (Neal, Gerber and Eisenberg), of Chicago,
Illinois, for the Respondent.
Guy Thomas, SPFPA, for the Charging Party.
DECISION
STATEMENT OF THE CASE
ARTHUR J. AMCHAN Administrative Law Judge. This case
was submitted to me on a stipulated record on April 2, 2014.
The General Counsel and Respondent, Total Security Manage-
ment Illinois 1, LLC, filed briefs upon this record on May 7,
2014.
The Charging Party Union, the International Union Security
Police Fire Professionals of America (SPFPA), filed the charge
on June 28, 2013. The General Counsel issued the complaint
on August 19, 2013. The issue in this matter is whether Re-
spondent violated Section 8(a)(5) and (1) in failing to provide
the Union with prior notice and an opportunity to bargain prior
to discharging bargaining unit employees Winston Jennings,
Jason Mack, and Nequan Smith.
FINDINGS OF FACT
I find as fact all the matters to which the parties stipulated on
April 2, 2014. The essential facts are as follows. Respondent,
which is based on Oakbrook Terrace, Illinois, provides security
planning and security services. The company receives materi-
als and services at its Oakbrook facility valued in excess of
$50,000 directly from locations outside of Illinois. Thus, Re-
spondent admits to being an employer within the meaning of
the Act.
The Union, SPFPA, was certified as the exclusive collective
bargaining agent of a unit of Respondent’s employees on Au-
gust 21, 2012. The Union represents a bargaining unit consist-
ing of all full time and regular part time armed and unarmed
security officers performing guard duties at Marshfield Plaza,
1700 W. 119th St. in Chicago.
Since August 21, 2012, the Union and Respondent have been
in negotiations over an initial collective-bargaining agreement.
So far as this record shows, as of April 2, 2014, the parties had
not reached agreement on a collective-bargaining agreement or
other binding agreement regarding discipline.
On March 12, 2013, Respondent discharged three employees
without giving prior notice and an opportunity to bargain to the
Union. It discharged Winston Jennings for allegedly refusing
to cooperate with Respondent’s internal investigation of co-
worker Jason Mack, making misrepresentations to a supervisor,
being insubordinate and failing to report a violation of company
policy.
Respondent discharged Jason Mack on March 12 for alleged-
ly abandoning his post prior to completing his shift and falsify-
ing company documents. That day Respondent also discharged
Nequan Smith for allegedly using profane and indecent lan-
guage towards a supervisor and causing a disturbance at a client
site.
In discharging the three employees, Respondent exercised
discretion in applying its Security Officer’s Personnel Policy
Manual, Guidelines and Rules, and/or any other written or ver-
bal policies and practices. Respondent did not adhere to any
uniform policy or practice with respect to issuing discipline
regarding the alleged transgressions of the three employees.
With regard to Jennings, Mack, and Smith, Respondent did
not have a reasonable good faith belief that the presence of any
one of them presented a serious, imminent danger to Respond-
ent’s business or personnel, or that any of them engaged in
unlawful conduct, posed a significant risk of exposing Re-
spondent to legal liability for his conduct, or threatened safety,
health or security in or outside the workplace.
Analysis
The parties have stipulated that the issues presented in this
matter include the validity of the Board’s decision in Alan
Ritchey, Inc., 359 NLRB 396 (2012). That decision, if valid,
leads to the conclusion that Respondent violated the Act as
alleged. However, that decision was issued by three members,
only one of whom, Chairman Pearce, had been confirmed by
the Senate. Thus Respondent challenges the validity of the
recess appointments of the other two, Richard Griffin and Sha-
ron Block.
Respondent also challenges the validity of then Acting Gen-
eral Counsel Lafe Solomon’s appointment and thus the authori-
ty of anyone at the Board to issue the complaint in this matter.
Richard Griffin was sworn in as the General Counsel of the
Board in November 2013, after the complaint in this matter
issued.
Finally, Respondent challenges the validity of the Board’s
appointment of Regional Director Peter Ohr and thus Mr. Ohr’s
authority to issue the complaint in this matter. This challenge
is based on the fact that Mr. Ohr was appointed to the position
of Regional Director by a three member Board which had only
two members whose appointments were allegedly valid. The
Board that appointed Mr. Ohr to his current position consisted
of two members confirmed by the Senate, Chairman Pearce and
Brian Hayes, and Craig Becker, a recess appointment. Re-
spondent argues that Mr. Becker’s appointment to the Board
was invalid; thus any actions by this three-member Board were
also invalid.
The Board has held that until the issue of the recess ap-
pointments is definitively resolved, it will continue to fulfill its
responsibilities under the Act, Belgrove Post Acute Care Cen-
ter, 359 NLRB 633 fn. 1 (2013). Therefore, I am bound by
existing Board precedent, Waco, Inc., 273 NLRB 749 fn. 14
(1984); Iowa Beef Packers, 144 NLRB 615 (1963), enfd. in part
331 F. 2d 176 (8th Cir. 1964). As to the alleged infirmity of the
complaint based on the alleged lack of authority of the Acting
General Counsel, I am also bound by the Board’s rejection of
this defense in Belgrove. Pursuant to Belgrove I further con-
clude that the Board had authority to appoint Peter Ohr as Re-
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC 43
gional Director and that Mr. Ohr had authority to issue the
complaint in this matter. Thus, the only issue before me is
whether Respondent violated the Act as alleged, applying the
Board’s Alan Ritchey decision.
The Alan Ritchey decision concerns an employer’s statutory
obligations between the time unit employees have selected an
exclusive bargaining representative and that when the union
and employer have effectuated a first contract. The Board held
that with regard to more serious forms of discipline: suspen-
sions, demotions and discharges, such an employer must gener-
ally provide its employees’ representative notice and an oppor-
tunity to bargain before disciplining a unit employee. An ex-
ception to this rule is a situation in which the employer is not
exercising discretion. I take the absence of discretion to mean
that the employer is automatically executing an established
policy. For example, suppose an employer which has an estab-
lished, uniformly enforced policy of automatically discharging
an employee for three consecutive no call/no shows. This em-
ployer would not have to provide a union notice and an oppor-
tunity to bargain over the discharge of an employee who violat-
ed that policy.
Also, where an employer has a reasonable, good-faith belief
that an employee’s continued presence on the job presents a
serious, imminent danger to the employer’s business or person-
nel, the employer may impose discipline immediately and uni-
laterally. Such a situation might be where the employee as-
saults another employee or supervisor. However, even in this
case, the employer would be required to bargain after the disci-
pline was imposed.1
The employer’s obligation to bargain over serious types of
discipline does not require the employer to bargain to impasse
prior to imposing discipline. However, after imposing disci-
pline the employer must continue to bargain until reaching
agreement or impasse.
CONCLUSION OF LAW
In the instant case Respondent has admitted to facts which
constitute a violation of Section 8(a) (5) and (1) of the Act pur-
suant to the Alan Ritchey decision. The disciplines were seri-
ous, i.e., discharges; Respondent exercised discretion in dis-
charging the three employees; it did not provide prior notice
and opportunity to bargain before doing so and concedes that
none of the employees’ continued presence at work presented
an imminent danger to its business or employees.
REMEDY
The Respondent, having discharged employees in violation
of the Act, must offer them reinstatement and make them whole
for any loss of earnings and other benefits. Backpay shall be
computed in accordance with F. W. Woolworth Co., 90 NLRB
289 (1950), with interest at the rate prescribed in New Hori-
zons, 283 NLRB 1173 (1987), compounded daily as prescribed
in Kentucky River Medical Center, 356 NLRB 6 (2010).

1 The Board noted, at fn. 19 of the Alan Ritchey decision, that in
such circumstances, the employer could suspend an employee pending
investigation, notify the Union and bargain over the suspension after
the fact, as well as any discipline imposed resulting from the employ-
er’s investigation.
Respondent shall file a report with the Social Security Ad-
ministration allocating backpay to the appropriate calendar
quarters. Respondent shall also compensate the discriminatee(s)
for the adverse tax consequences, if any, of receiving one or
more lump-sum backpay awards covering periods longer than 1
year, Latino Express, Inc., 359 NLRB 518 (2012).
On these findings of fact and conclusions of law and on the
entire record, I issue the following recommended2
ORDER
The Respondent, Total Security Management Illinois 1,
LLC, Oakbrook Terrace, Illinois, its officers, agents, succes-
sors, and assigns, shall
1. Cease and desist from
(a) Imposing serious discipline (e.g., suspension, discharge,
demotion) upon bargaining unit employees without first notify-
ing the employees’ collective-bargaining representative and
providing the bargaining representative with the opportunity to
bargain over the discipline to be imposed.
(b) In any like or related manner interfering with, restrain-
ing, or coercing employees in the exercise of the rights guaran-
teed them by Section 7 of the Act.
2. Take the following affirmative action necessary to effec-
tuate the policies of the Act.
(a) Rescind the discharges of Winston Jennings, Jason
Mack, and Nequan Smith.
(b) Notify the Union and provide it with an opportunity to
bargain over any discipline that may be imposed for the alleged
misconduct that led to the discharge of the three employees on
March 12, 2013.
(c) Within 14 days from the date of the Board’s Order, offer
Winston Jennings, Jason Mack, and Nequan Smith full rein-
statement to their former jobs or, if those jobs no longer exist,
to substantially equivalent positions, without prejudice to their
seniority or any other rights or privileges previously enjoyed.
(d) Make Winston Jennings, Jason Mack, and Nequan Smith
whole for any loss of earnings and other benefits suffered as a
result of the discrimination against them, in the manner set
forth in the remedy section of the decision.
(e) Within 14 days from the date of the Board’s Order, re-
move from its files any reference to the unlawful discharges,
and within 3 days thereafter notify the employees in writing
that this has been done and that the discharges will not be used
against them in any way. This does not prevent Respondent
from disciplining or discharging these employees after provid-
ing the Union notice and opportunity to bargain over any disci-
pline that may be imposed, after complying with Section
8(a)(5) and (1) of the Act.
(f) Preserve and, within 14 days of a request, or such addi-
tional time as the Regional Director may allow for good cause
shown, provide at a reasonable place designated by the Board
or its agents, all payroll records, social security payment rec-
ords, timecards, personnel records and reports, and all other

2 If no exceptions are filed as provided by Sec. 102.46 of the Board’s
Rules and Regulations, the findings, conclusions, and recommended
Order shall, as provided in Sec. 102.48 of the Rules, be adopted by the
Board and all objections to them shall be deemed waived for all pur-
poses.
DECISIONS OF THE NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD44
records, including an electronic copy of such records if stored
in electronic form, necessary to analyze the amount of backpay
due under the terms of this Order.
(g) Within 14 days after service by the Region, post at its
Oakbrook Terrance and Marshfield Plaza facilities, copies of
the attached notice marked “Appendix.”3 Copies of the notice,
on forms provided by the Regional Director for Region 13,
after being signed by the Respondent’s authorized representa-
tive, shall be posted by the Respondent and maintained for 60
consecutive days in conspicuous places including all places
where notices to employee are customarily posted. In addition
to physical posting of paper notices, the notices shall be distrib-
uted electronically, such as by email, posting on an intranet or
an internet site, and/or other electronic means, if the Respond-
ent customarily communicates with its employees by such
means. Reasonable steps shall be taken by the Respondent to
ensure that the notices are not altered, defaced, or covered by
any other material. In the event that, during the pendency of
these proceedings, the Respondent has gone out of business or
closed the facility involved in these proceedings, the Respond-
ent shall duplicate and mail, at its own expense, a copy of the
notice to all current employees and former employees em-
ployed by the Respondent at any time since March 12, 2013.
(h) Within 21 days after service by the Region, file with the
Regional Director a sworn certification of a responsible official
on a form provided by the Region attesting to the steps that the
Respondent has taken to comply.
Dated, Washington, D.C., May 9, 2014.
APPENDIX
NOTICE TO EMPLOYEES
POSTED BY ORDER OF THE
NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD
An Agency of the United States Government
The National Labor Relations Board has found that we violated
Federal labor law and has ordered us to post and obey this no-
tice.
FEDERAL LAW GIVES YOU THE RIGHT TO
Form, join, or assist a union
Choose representatives to bargain with us on your be-
half
Act together with other employees for your benefit and
protection
Choose not to engage in any of these protected activi-
ties.

3 If this Order is enforced by a judgment of a United States court of
appeals, the words in the notice reading “Posted by Order of the Na-
tional Labor Relations Board” shall read “Posted Pursuant to a Judg-
ment of the United States Court of Appeals Enforcing an Order of the
National Labor Relations Board.”
WE WILL NOT discharge, suspend, or demote you without
providing your union, International Union Security Police Fire
Professionals of America (SPFPA) notice and an opportunity to
bargain about the discipline.
WE WILL NOT in any like or related manner interfere with, re-
strain, or coerce you in the exercise of the rights guaranteed
you by Section 7 of the Act.
WE WILL rescind the discharges of Winston Jennings, Jason
Mack, and Nequan Smith and will reinstate them to their for-
mer jobs, or if those jobs no longer exist, to substantially equiv-
alent positions, without prejudice to their seniority or any other
rights or privileges previously enjoyed.
WE WILL make Winston Jennings, Jason Mack, and Nequan
Smith whole for any loss of earnings and other benefits result-
ing from their discharge, less any net interim earnings, plus
interest compounded daily.
WE WILL within 14 days of this the date of this Order remove
from our files any reference to the unlawful discharges of Win-
ston Jennings, Jason Mack, and Nequan Smith. However, this
does not prevent us from imposing discipline after notifying the
Union and providing it with an opportunity to bargain over that
discipline.
WE WILL, within 3 days thereafter, notify Winston Jennings,
Jason Mack, and Nequan Smith in writing that this has been
done and that the discharges previously imposed will not be
used against them in any way—except that if discipline is law-
fully imposed after giving notice and an opportunity to bargain
over the discipline to the Union, records of such discipline may
be contained in our files.
TOTAL SECURITY MANAGEMENT ILLINOIS 1, LLC
The Administrative Law Judge’s decision can be found at
www.nlrb.gov/case/13-CA-108215 or by using the QR code below.
Alternatively, you can obtain a copy of the decision from the
Executive Secretary, National Labor Relations Board, 1099
14th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20570, or by calling (202)
273–1940.